1 


LIBRARY 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


METHODS    IN   TEACHING 

BEING  THE  STOCKTON   METHODS 
IN   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS 


METHODS  IN  TEACHING 

BEING  THE  STOCKTON  METHODS 
IN   ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS 


BY 

ROSA  V.  WINTERBURN 

*  » 

FORMERLY  SUPERVISOR  OF   ENGLISH   AND   HISTORY  IN  THE  STOCKTON  CITY  SCHOOLS 


INCLUDING  A   CHAPTER   ON   NATURE   STUDY 

BY 

EDWARD   HUGHES 


Neto  ¥orfc 
THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 

LONDON:    MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LTD. 
1907 


GENERAL 


COPYRIGHT  1907 
BY  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  May,  1907 


Must  or 

*  E*A  PKINTING  COMPANY 
LAMCMTCR,  PA. 


TO   MY  MOTHER 

FROM   WHOSE  BEAUTIFUL  NATURE 
I   LEARNED 

MY  FIRST  LESSONS  OF  LIFE 


167026 


FOREWORD 


Among  the  exhibits  at  the  St.  Louis  and  Portland  Exposi- 
tions was  one  from  the  Stockton  Schools.  It  was  so  arranged 
as  to  show  in  the  smallest  possible  compass  as  complete  a 
picture  of  the  development  of  the  course  of  study  as  could 
be  presented  in  written  form.  The  work  in  all  bound  vol- 
umes was  shown  in  the  following  sequence : 

1.  A  typewritten  monograph,  or  method  sheet,  treating 
of  the  subject  illustrated  in  the  volume. 

2.  The  course  of  study  in  the  subject  in  printed  form. 

3.  The  teacher's  daily  program. 

4.  Work  from  the  pupils,  showing  all  the  written  lessons 
given  in  the  subject  from  the  first  lesson  in  September  to 
the  last  lesson  in  June. 

Under  this  arrangement  the  methods  followed,  the  course 
of  study  to  be  carried  out,  the  time  value  of  every  subject, 
the  results  secured,  were  shown  in  every  volume.  There 
were  ninety-two  monographs,  or  method  sheets,  illustrating 
fully  the  methods  followed  in  the  different  subjects  taught. 
In  all  cases  these  monographs  were  written  by  the  principals 
or  teachers. 

These  volumes  of  method  sheets,  illustrated  as  they  were 
with  the  results  secured  from  pupils,  met  with  a  generous 
commendation  from  the  teachers  of  America.  Since  the 
close  of  the  Expositions  hundreds  of  letters  have  been  re- 
ceived asking  if  the  Stockton  methods  could  be  secured  in 

vii 


Vlll  METHODS  IN  TEACHING 

printed  form.  To  meet  what  seemed  to  be  a  real  demand,  it 
was  decided  to  issue  "  The  Book  of  Stockton  Methods." 

The  labor  of  editing  the  monographs  was  committed  to 
Mrs.  Rosa  V.  Winterburn,  under  whose  skillful  direction  as 
Supervisor  of  the  Primary  and  Grammar  Schools  of  Stock- 
ton much  of  the  work  has  been  developed.  From  this  pro- 
posed editing  of  teachers*  and  pupils'  work  the  present  more 
ambitious  book  has  grown,  in  which  are  given  many  experi- 
ences and  suggestions  that  were  not  embodied  in  the  original 
plan.  In  the  use  of  the  teachers'  monographs  repetition  has 
been  avoided  and  in  many  cases  the  methods  have  been  con- 
densed, but  the  thought  and  the  wording  have  been  pre- 
served in  so  far  as  practicable. 

The  book  does  not  pretend  to  be  an  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion, "What  are  the  best  methods  of  teaching?"  It  does 
seek  to  show  what  is  being  actually  done  by  teachers  under 
working  conditions  when  they  strive  intelligently  to  make 
their  methods  rational  and  useful.  No  claim  is  made  that 
the  methods  given  in  this  book  are  models  for  others  to  fol- 
low; but  it  is  claimed  that  they  are  methods  of  practice 
rather  than  of  theory.  As  such  they  are  submitted  to  the 

teachers  of  America. 

JAS.  A.  BARR, 

City  Superintendent  of  Schools. 
STOCKTON,  CALIFORNIA, 

June  i,  1906. 


PREFACE 


"Where  no  wise  guidance  is,  the  people  falleth; 
But  in  the  multitude  of  counsellors  there  is  safety/' 

Out  of  the  experiences  of  many  people,  tested,  retested, 
and  tested  again,  this  book  has  grown.  May  there  be  in  it 
words  of  help  and  direction !  In  a  sense  it  is  a  composite, 
but  it  is  only  in  the  way  in  which  the  civilization  of  today  is 
a  composite  of  what  has  gone  before.  No  man  dare  say  that 
he  stands  alone  in  his  achievements ;  preceding  ages  and  con- 
temporaneous efforts  have  helped  place  him  where  he  is,  no 
matter  how  strong  within  him  may  be  the  personal  element. 
So  with  this  book.  Superintendent,  supervisors,  teachers, 
and  pupils,  with  perhaps  an  unusual  degree  of  harmony, 
have  worked  together  over  the  problems  of  the  schoolroom. 
Some  of  the  helpful  deductions  thus  made  are  recorded  here. 

This  is  a  book  of  methods  rather  than  of  subject  matter. 
Both  might  well  be  presented,  but  to  do  so  would  overburden 
such  a  publication.  While  it  is  true  that  without  subject 
matter  methods  are  valueless,  the  supposition  is  that  a  man 
or  woman  who  is  admitted  today  into  the  schoolroom  is 
fairly  well  provided  with  the  knowledge  requisite  for  the 
task.  Many  teachers  fail,  however,  in  handling  their  equip- 
ments; many  and  many  a  pupil  wastes  a  large  part  of  his 
time  in  school  because  of  the  imperfect  way  in  which  the 
subject  matter  of  even  a  common  school  education  is  pre- 
sented; many  parents,  eager  for  the  best  interests  of  their 
children,  find  themselves  bitterly  disappointed  with  the 

ix 


X  PREFACE 

product  turned  out  by  the  schools  which  have  been  control- 
ling the  intellectual  development  of  the  children  for  eight 
years. 

Character,  individuality,  citizenship,  knowledge,  indus- 
trial ability,  general  culture, — these  have  been  the  desired 
lines  of  progress  for  our  schoolrooms.  Along  them  there 
has  been  felt  a  strengthening,  intensifying,  broadening  in- 
fluence that  has  been  unquestionable  in  its  formative  power. 
It  is  in  the  hope  of  aiding  to  perpetuate  these  aims — known 
and  reached  out  after  by  all  true  teachers — that  we  offer  this 
book  to  our  fellow-workers. 

Grateful  acknowledgments  are  extended  to  Mr.  James 
A.  Barr,  Superintendent  of  the  Stockton  City  Schools,  for 
his  unfailing  help  and  ready  suggestions;  to  the  teachers, 
who  have  kindly  permitted  the  use  of  extracts  from  sum- 
maries submitted  by  them  of  their  work  and  methods;  to 
Mr.  Edward  Hughes  and  Mr.  S.  H.  Cohn,  who  have  made 
possible  a  greater  completeness  of  treatment  by  their  liberal 
contributions  on  nature  study  and  geography;  and  to  Mrs. 
Alice  Smallfield  Schneider,  whose  careful  development  of 
the  word  study  is  the  basis  of  the  thoughts  here  presented  on 
that  subject. 

Believing  that  ordinarily  the  busy  teacher  has  time  for 
only  a  few  reference  books,  the  lists  appended  to  the  subjects 
are  short,  containing  only  some  of  the  books  that  have  been 
found  to  contain  the  most  direct  help  or  the  most  suggestive 
guidance. 

ROSA   V.   WlNTERBURN. 

Los  ANGELES,  CALIFORNIA, 
May  23,  1906. 


CONTENTS 


PART   I. 

LITERATURE       LANGUAGE       WORD  STUDY 

CHAPTER   I. 
GENERAL  THOUGHTS  ON  LITERATURE  FOR  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOLS      3 

CHAPTER  II. 

PRESENTATION,  ACQUISITION,  AND  ILLUSTRATION  OF  LITERATURE 
IN  PRIMARY  GRADES 9 

CHAPTER  III. 

PRESENTATION,  ACQUISITION,  AND  ILLUSTRATION  OF  LITERATURE 
IN  GRAMMAR  GRADES 23 

CHAPTER  IV. 
IMPORTANCE  OF  LANGUAGE  TRAINING  FOR  ALL  PUPILS       .       .     48 

CHAPTER  V. 
ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  WITH  PRIMARY  GRADES       .       .     58 

CHAPTER  VI. 
ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  WITH  GRAMMAR  GRADES      .       .     78 

CHAPTER  VII. 
WORD  STUDY 100 

PART    II. 

ARITHMETIC 
CHAPTER  VIII. 

GENERAL  AIMS:  INTRODUCTORY  THOUGHTS;  SUMMARY  OF  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  COURSE  IN  ARITHMETIC    .       .       .       .127 

xi 


Xll  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  IX. 

SUBJECT   MATTER  AND   METHODS   IN   FOURTH,   FIFTH,   SIXTH, 
SEVENTH,  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES 145 

PART    III. 

NATURE  STUDY       GEOGRAPHY 

CHAPTER   X. 
PLANT  STUDY 173 

CHAPTER   XL 

ANIMAL  STUDY:  THE  AQUARIUM;  THE  INSECT  CAGE;  LESSONS 
ON  ANIMALS 190 

CHAPTER   XII. 
NON-LIVING  THINGS 201 

CHAPTER   XIII. 
GEOGRAPHY  .        . .       .       .  231 

PART    IV. 

HISTORY       CIVICS 

CHAPTER   XIV. 

INTRODUCTORY  WORDS.    HISTORY  IN  THE  PRIMARY  GRADES  .       .  263 

CHAPTER  XV. 
HISTORY  IN  THE  GRAMMAR  GRADES 287 

CHAPTER  XVI. 
Civics 316 

PART   V. 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

DRAWING.    Music.    PHYSICAL  CULTURE.    SEWING      .       .       .333 


PART  I 
LITERATURE       LANGUAGE       WORD  STUDY 


LITERATURE 


CHAPTER  I 

GENERAL   THOUGHTS    ON   LITERATURE   FOR   ELE- 
MENTARY  SCHOOLS 

To  prepare  the  child  for  life  is  the  aim  of  education.  He 
who  knows  how  to  read,  and  who  desires  to  read  valuable 
and  instructive  books  has  gained  a  great  part  of  his  educa- 
tion. 

A  course  in  literature  for  grammar  grades  should  tend  to 
produce  in  the  pupil  the  desire  to  read,  the  ability  to  under- 
stand accurately  what  is  read,  a  familiarity  with  books  that 
will  result  in  discrimination  in  buying  or  in  selecting  reading 
from  the  shelves  of  libraries.  None  of  these  aims  may  be 
actually  attained,  but  as  potentialities  they  are  worth  striv- 
ing for  long  and  earnestly. 

In  this  education  there  are  three  personal  factors:  the 

parent,  the  teacher,  the  child.     The  parent  in  the  home  is 

the  mainspring.     Where  it  is  possible  for 

Factors  ^im  to  provide  suitable  books  for  his  child, 

to  direct  his  selections,  and  to  encourage 

acquisitions  in  various  lines  of  thought,  there  need  be  little 

fear  for  the  future  reading.     Home  impulses  and  training, 


4  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

when  they  are  real  forces,  are  the  strongest  influences  in  a 
child's  life. 

The  teacher's  place  in  this  scheme  of  education  is  most 
difficult.     He  should  guide  many  minds  in  many  directions ; 

he  should  direct  the  school  for  the  general 
Guidance 

good  of  all,  and  at  the  same  time  he  should 

discover  individual  strength  and  preference,  for  he  is  train- 
ing to  secure  the  best  results  for  the  race  as  well  as  for  the 
individual.  To  select  reading  for  a  number  of  young  people 
is  no  light  task.  Too  often  only  general  interest  or  amuse- 
ment is  considered,  and  it  is  forgotten  that  these  should  be 
but  means  toward  the  end, — life  and  progress.  It  is  not 
sufficient  to  encourage  reading ;  sometimes  it  must  be  checked. 
Many  pupils  read  too  much  instead  of  too  little.  Seventh 
grade  boys  have  been  known  to  draw  a  library  book  every 
other  day.  Such  a  condition  usually  means  unwholesome 
reading  and  a  sieve-like  mind.  It  requires  restraint  as  surely 
as  the  sprouting  fruit  tree  needs  the  pruning  knife  at  the 
proper  season.  A  child  frequently  becomes  interested  in 
one  kind  of  reading  and  is  prone  to  refuse  all  else.  An 
eighth  grade  boy  said  that  if  he  had  ten  dollars  to  spend 
for  books,  he  would  buy  nothing  but  Henty's  stories.  This 
is  a  perverted  taste,  for  specialization  in  any  subject  should 
be  preceded  by  underlying  information  on  many.  General 
knowledge  is  imperative  for  the  broad  foundation  that  is 
most  useful  for  all  lines.  Moreover,  different  kinds  of 
reading  may  open  up  new  possibilities  of  life  work,  and 
may  so  guide  the  pupil  into  a  variety  of  interests, — his- 
tory, travel,  science,  poems,  biography,  art,  that  a  breadth 
of  view  is  acquired  that  prevents  narrowness  in  later 
specialization. 


LITERATURE   FOR   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS  5 

The  center  of  this  education  is  the  pupil,  who  should  learn 
self-control  and  self-guidance.  He  should  gradually  be  led 
to  make  conscious  and  self-earned  advances. 
Let  him  read  with  unconscious  happiness 
and  interest  what  has  been  selected,  enjoying  with  childish 
abandon  story  or  biography;  but  when  another  choice  is 
made,  lead  him  to  consider  the  opportunity  of  broadening 
out  into  new  fields  of  thought  and  knowledge  as  well  as 
exploring  more  thoroughly  the  old  ones.  By  this  means,  he 
will  learn  to  choose  books  more  judiciously  and  to  lay  a  more 
systematic  foundation  in  all  subjects. 

In  the  first  two  grades  the  stories  are  told  to  the  children 
by  the  teacher.     Compared  with  reading,  this  method  in- 
volves some  loss  of  time  and  literary  style ; 

Presentation  ^ut  **  means  on  *ne  Part  °^  tne  PUP^S  deeper 
interest,  closer  attention,  greater  concentra- 
tion, more  sympathetic  response ;  on  the  part  of  the  teacher 
it  means  more  careful  preparation,  through  which  comes  a 
stronger  fellow-feeling  in  the  presentation,  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  art  of  story  telling,  a  power  with  children.  In 
the  third  grade  stories  may  be  read,  although  telling  is  still 
preferable.  A  short  story  should  be  told  as  a  whole.  This 
is  demanded  by  the  natural  longing  to  get  to  the  end,  which, 
fortunately,  aids  the  teacher  in  cultivating  the  sense  of  a 
complete  thought  or  narrative.  In  long  stories  there  are 
natural  divisions  which  should  be  observed,  for  young  minds 
retain  best  a  short,  connected  recital.  These  breaks  do  not 
destroy  continuity  of  thought  or  interest,  for  every  portion 
of  a  well  written  story  has  within  itself  certain  elements  of 
completeness ;  on  the  other  hand,  long  narratives  are  con- 
fusing and  tend  to  weaken  continuity  of  thought.  Every 


6  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

part  should  make  a  finished  little  production,  so  told  that  the 
next  division  fits  on  naturally. 

Reproduction   follows  narration.     Every  member  in  the 
class  should  feel  that  he  is  held  responsible  for  some  part  in 

this  exercise;  he  should  be  able  to  answer 
Reproduction 

questions  if  he  can  not  tell  the  whole  story. 

By  dividing  the  class  into  small  sections,  every  pupil  may  be 
asked  for  a  part,  perhaps  all,  of  the  reproduction.  This  is 
valuable  training  for  little  ones,  for,  added  to  the  growth  in 
English,  there  is  the  greater  purpose  of  developing  a  sense 
of  responsibility.  The  child  comes  to  understand  that  here 
is  a  duty  for  him  to  perform  to  the  best  of  his  ability.  He 
feels  that  in  order  to  meet  this  responsibility  to  his  work 
and  to  himself  he  must  listen  well,  remember  accurately, 
and  reproduce  fluently.  A  teacher  can  not  develop  too 
early  a  feeling  of  pleasure  and  satisfaction  in  a  self-completed 
task.  Written  reproductions  can  be  commenced  during 
the  first  year,  for  the  children  soon  take  pleasure  in  form- 
ing composite  stories  for  the  teacher  to  write  on  the  board. 
The  children  should  be  conscious  of  continuity  of  thought 
in  these  exercises.  That  is,  no  sentence  given  by  the  class 
should  be  written  anywhere  except  in  its  proper  place  in  the 
development  of  the  story,  and  the  teacher  should  either  tell 
why  it  is  not  used  in  the  place  suggested  or  have  the  chil- 
dren themselves  explain  the  reason.  In  making  these  com- 
posite stories  many  opportunities  are  found  for  improvement 
in  sentence  structure  and  for  noting  vulgar  and  incorrect 
idioms  for  future  correction.  Frequent  reproductions  add 
rapidly  to  a  child's  vocabulary  and  to  a  correct  use  of  the 
new  words  learned;  continuity  of  thought  is  strengthened 
by  making  complete  stories ;  there  is  a  gain  in  self-possession 


LITERATURE   FOR  ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS  / 

by  rising  and  narrating  before  the  class ;  clear  concepts  are 
formed  if  care  is  taken  that  the  dramatic  situations  are  pic- 
tured mentally ;  the  composite  productions  furnish  abundant 
material  for  reading  lessons,  copying  exercises,  drawing, 
and  spelling. 

Narrative  drawing  by  the  children  is  of  greatest  assistance 
in  forming  clear  concepts  of  striking  scenes.     No  matter 
how  crude  the  child's  illustration  may  be,  his 
ideas  are  clearer  for  his  efforts  to  put  them 
into  pictures.     The  better,  more  logical  drawings  that  may 
be  put  on  the  boards  by  the  teacher  or  by  older  pupils  are  a 
help  and  pleasure  to  the  children,  for  they  aid  in  fixing  the 
development  of  the  story,  consequently,  in  acquiring  con- 
tinuity of  thought. 

In  teaching  a  poem  the  pictures  presented  by  it  should  be 
seen  clearly  by  the  pupils  before  they  try  to  commit  to  mem- 
ory.    In  these  first  grades  the  poems  are 
usually  narrative,  as  in  that  pleasing  little 
account  of  the  raindrops : 

"  Some  little  drops  of  water, 

Whose  home  was  in  the  sea, 
To  go  upon  a  journey 
Once  happened  to  agree. 

"  They  had  a  cloud  for  carriage 
And  drove  a  playful  breeze, 
And  over  town  and  country, 
They  rode  along  at  ease. 

"  But  oh,  there  were  so  many, 

That  soon  the  carriage  broke, 
And  to  the  ground  came  tumbling 
Those  frightened  little  folk. 


8  METHODS   IN    TEACHING 

"  Then  through  the  moss  and  grasses, 

They  were  compelled  to  roam, 
Until  a  brooklet  found  them 
And  carried  them  all  home." 

The  description  of  the  home,  the  journey,  the  breakdown 
of  the  carriage,  the  run  home  again,  can  be  made  most  inter- 
esting first  in  story  form.  The  poem  is  then  welcomed  with 
delight;  difficulties  in  meanings  and  constructions  vanish; 
memorizing  is  almost  without  effort.  Formal  and  formative 
studies  on  a  poem  should  be  kept  distinct.  While  a  child's 
mind  is  absorbed  in  the  journey  of  the  raindrops  in  their 
cloud  carriage  from  the  ocean  over  the  land,  down  the  brook, 
and  back  home  to  the  sea,  it  should  not  be  confused  and 
distracted  by  a  search  for  definitions  of  "  happened "  or 
"  agree."  If  the  meaning  is  understood  the  enjoyment 
should  be  unalloyed ;  later,  there  can  be  taken  up  studies  of 
words,  constructions,  and  reproductions,  when  the  mind 
may  find  in  these  more  formal  studies  a  pleasure  equally  as 
great  as  that  given  by  the  poem  itself.  Synonyms  can  be 
given  and  used.  Five  or  ten  minute  drills  two  or  three  times 
a  week  in  word  exercises  are  invaluable,  giving  surprising 
results. 

The  reviews  of  poems  and  stories  should  be  tactfully  ar- 
ranged, so  that  they  do  not  become  tedious.  By  this  means, 

memory  and  power  are  fostered.  The  dra- 
Dramatic  ,  ,  j  c-  1 

Element  matic    element   can   be   preserved.     Simple 

acting  by  the  children,  even  of  the  stories 
given  early  in  the  first  year,  is  very  enjoyable,  and  it  serves 
to  emphasize  action  and  to  vivify  concepts. 


Of     1  HI 

UNIVERSITY 

or 


CHAPTER  II 

PRESENTATION,   ACQUISITION,   AND   ILLUSTRATION 
OF  LITERATURE  IN   PRIMARY  GRADES 

FIRST  YEAR  GRADE 

During  the  year  it  is  possible  every  month  to  learn  a  short 
poem  and  to  use  a  folk  tale  or  a  Bible  story  for  narration, 
reproduction,  reading  lesson,  and  other  drills.  Many  teach- 
ers are  able  to  add  a  history  story  occasionally  to  the  month's 
story  material. 

A  teacher  l  in  a  first  grade  gives  some  of  her  experiences 
with  the  children : 

About  twenty  minutes  are  taken  for  telling  a  new  story 
to  the  class.  The  second  day  about  the  same  length  of  time 

is  taken  for  questioning  the  pupils  to  help 
Presentation 

them  remember  the  story.     This  is  the  first 

step  in  reproduction  and  memorizing.  The  third  day  indi- 
vidual reproduction  can  begin.  At  first,  one  child  rarely 
tells  the  whole  story.  The  stronger  or  the  older  pupils  open 
the  way ;  one  begins,  another  continues,  and  so  on,  until  three 
or  four  have  taken  part;  finally,  more  and  more  eager  little 
hands  are  raised,  until  nearly  every  child  in  the  two  upper 
divisions  can  tell  the  complete  story. 

Sometimes  a  little  play  is  made  of  part  of  the  tale.  A 
tiny  maid  in  her  red  hood  makes  a  dear  "  Little  Red  Riding 
A  ,.  Hood,"  on  her  happy  way  through  the  for- 

est to  see  Grandma;  some  small  boy  de- 
lights in  the  hoarse  growling  that  is  supposed  to  belong  to 

1Mrs.  Edna  O.  James. 

9 


IO  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

the  part  of  the  old  wolf.  Cinderella,  her  gracious  fairy  god- 
mother, and  her  wicked  step-sisters  often  converse  for  the 
edification  of  the  other  babies,  who,  in  their  turn,  enact 
Silver  Hair  and  the  three  bears,  Tom  Thumb,  Dick  Whit- 
tington,  and  the  other  heroes  of  the  fiction  dear  to  children. 
Fortunately,  little  ones  do  not  tire  quickly  of  these  stories 
and  representations,  and  ten  days  or  two  weeks  pass  pleas- 
antly in  the  efforts  to  reproduce  in  good  lan- 
guage the  story  that  has  been  listened  to 
with  such  rapt  attention.  In  the  meantime,  all  unsuspected 
by  the  children  themselves,  much  more  than  the  story  is  being 
learned.  The  first  problem  that  teachers  of  first  grades 
must  meet  is  how  to  induce  the  babies  before  them  to  forget 
their  shyness  and  talk  about  the  things  that  it  is  desirable 
the  class  should  be  learning.  The  above  exercises  accom- 
plish much  in  this  line  in  addition  to  all  the  progress  possible 
in  language  and  general  culture ;  this  is  especially  true  when 
the  stories  are  acted  out.  The  dramatic  instinct,  or  playing, 
is  in  every  child ;  if  it  has  an  opportunity  to  express  itself, 
it  becomes  an  important  factor  in  self-forgetfulness,  one  of 
the  first  requirements  for  the  happiness  of  a  child  in  the 
schoolroom.  There  now  follow  formal  language  lessons,  and 
the  formation  of  a  composite  story  for  reading  and  copying. 
Toward  spring  the  story  of  Hiawatha's  childhood  is  taken, 
preceded  by  two  or  three  weeks  on  Indian  life.  Much  illus- 
trative material  can  be  obtained  for  class 
Hiawatha 

use.     The  children  examine  everything,  ask 

questions,  and  are  told  interesting  facts.  After  a  fairly  clear 
child's  idea  of  the  Indians  has  been  formed,  the  poem  is 
begun,  and  for  several  weeks  the  many  stories  about  the 
little  Hiawatha  are  a  source  of  delight  to  all.  During  this 


LITERATURE   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES  II 

introductory  work  one  day,  at  least,  is  given  to  Mr.  Long- 
fellow and  his  love  for  children. 

The  childhood  of  Hiawatha  is  presented  in  several  divi- 
sions, some  of  which  are :  the  cradle,  lessons  in  the  sky,  the 
fire-fly,  the  rainbow.  Wherever  an  opportunity  for  a  science 
lesson  presents  itself,  it  precedes  the  literature.  The  fire-fly, 
for  instance,  is  studied  before  taking  up  that  part  of  the 
poem  that  tells  about  it.  In  this  way  the  pupils  understand 
the  references  with  perfect  ease.  The  story  is  first  presented 
to  the  children  in  prose  narrative.  After  it  has  been  enjoyed, 
understood,  and  reproduced,  the  partial  version  is  read  or 
repeated  to  the  pupils,  who  learn  as  much  of  it  as  can  be 
remembered  without  too  great  an  effort.  In  fact,  the  greater 
part  of  the  memorizing  is  almost  unconscious  on  the  part  of 
the  pupils.  The  first  grades  use  from  the  sixty-fifth  to  the 
two  hundred  and  thirty-fifth  line,  and  about  one-third  of  this 
amount  is  remembered  by  the  majority  of  the  pupils. 

During  the  year  we  have  taken  but  a  step,  it  is  true,  into 
the  wonderland  of  story ;  but  if  we  have  created  in  the  chil- 
dren a  desire  that  will  lead  them  toward  an  enjoyment  of  the 
best  in  literature,  have  we  not  done  much? 

SECOND  YEAR  GRADE 

In  this  year  the  poems  to  be  memorized  are  taken  from  the 

writings  of  the  Gary  sisters,  Eugene  Field,  and  Longfellow. 

They  are  first  presented  orally  by  the  teacher, 

who  tells  the  story  involved,  often  using  the 
&ucL 
Method  words  of  the  poet,  if  they  are  understood  by 

the  little  ones.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the 
children  should  form  clear-cut  mental  concepts  of  the  pic- 
tures in  the  poems.  To  facilitate  this,  expressive  drawings 


12  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

by  the  children  supplement  excellently  the  narratives  of  the 
teacher.  Oral  reproductions  follow,  some  of  which  are 
written  on  the  board,  as  was  done  in  the  first  grades.  A 
composite  story  produced  in  this  way  by  the  pupils  is  copied, 
thus  aiding  in  the  proper  use  of  capitals,  punctuation  marks, 
and  words,  and  in  correct  spelling.  The  poems  are  learned 
as  early  in  the  presentation  as  seems  advisable  to  the  teacher, 
difficult  ones  being  given  more  time  to  be  thoroughly  com- 
prehended. Several  stanzas  are  often  almost  committed  to 
memory  before  the  teacher  is  really  aware  of  the  fact,  simply 
by  using  the  poet's  words  and  constructions  frequently  in 
telling  the  story,  and  by  encouraging  the  children  to  do  the 
same  in  their  reproductions. 

During  the  last  half  of  the  year  pupils  may  be  permitted 
to  write  original  reproductions,  in  which  they  should  be 
enheartened  to  advance  towards  the  accuracy  of  the  copied 
work. 

In  connection  with  the  poems  and  sometimes  with  the 
stories,  a  little  knowledge  may  be  gained  about  authors. 

Field,  the  Gary  sisters,  Longfellow,  can  all 
Authors 

be   made   real   characters    to   the   children. 

Short  stories  about  them  are  interesting ;  something  of  their 
lives  can  be  seen  in  their  writings,  even  by  these  little  folks ; 
poems  that  are  not  in  the  regular  course  can  be  read  aloud, 
several  times  perhaps,  just  for  enjoyment,  general  culture, 
and  familiarity  with  the  poet. 

The  following  are  thoughts  from  a  second  grade  teacher : 1 
In  the  second  grade  about  twenty  minutes  a  day  are  de- 
voted to  the  literature  stories  during  two  weeks  of  every 
school  month  of  the  year.    This  time  does  not  include  formal 
1  Mrs.  Mae  Simms. 


LITERATURE   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES  13 

language  drills,  nor  does  it  cover  all  that  is  spent  in  the  final 
writing  of  the  stories.  The  former  belongs  to  the  language 
lessons,  and  some  time  for  the  composition  work  is  found  in 
the  penmanship  period.  One  of  the  most  enjoyable  stories 
for  our  grade  is  "  Horatius,"  by  Lord  Macauley.  The  por- 
tions used  are  those  that  are  full  of  life  and  action,  where 
the  story  interest  carries  the  child  over  language  difficulties. 
It  is  surprising  how  many  stanzas  can  be  understood  by 
the  children,  who  follow  with  keen  delight  the  preparations 

of  the  enemy  against  Rome,  the  flight  of  the 
"  Horatius  "  country  people  to  the  city,  the  desperation  of 

the  "  city  fathers/'  and  the  heroism  of  Hora- 
tius. As  this  poem  is  long  and  is  used  for  both  literature 
and  history,  it  is  permitted  to  run  through  the  month,  pro- 
vided the  children  show  no  signs  of  tiring  of  it.  Usually, 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end,  the  interest  never  flags,  not 
even  in  the  writing  and  formal  language  drills  based  upon 
the  poem.  The  primary  instructor  well  knows  that  in  all 
the  teaching  in  which  she  is  the  first  source  of  the  material 
for  the  class,  the  inspiration  also  must  come  from  her,  and 
that  the  results  will  be  in  accordance  with  the  enthusiasm 
that  she  can  arouse.  If  the  pleasure  is  deep  and  sincere, 
the  tongues  of  the  listeners  will  be  unloosed  in  willing  and 
eager  reproductions,  and  the  writing  that  follows  will  be  no 
task.  When  introducing  a  new  story,  it  is  advisable  to  tell 
it  to  the  children  in  the  morning  while  the  teacher  and  the 
class  are  at  their  best.  Then  let  the  narrator  put  into  the 
presentation  all  her  power  to  make  the  subject  interesting 
and  attractive.  Let  her  strive  to  so  impress  the  listeners 
that  later  mention  of  the  hero  or  heroine  will  bring  a 
glow  to  the  cheeks  and  a  sparkle  to  the  eyes.  It  is  a  good 


14  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

plan  to  refer  to  the  story  several  times  during  the  day  after 
it  has  been  narrated,  instead  of  leaving  it  untouched  until 
the  hour  for  reproduction.  It  can  be  kept  fresh  in  the  minds 
of  the  children  by  a  question  or  two  or  a  talk  of  a  few  mo- 
ments, which  can  be  brought  in  without  interference  with 
other  lessons. 

In  the  regular  period  for  reproduction  members  of  the 
class  are  called  upon  to  tell  different  episodes,  until,  after  a 

few  days,  any  child  can  tell  the  complete 
Reproduction 

story,  or  the  portion  of  it  that  has  been 

given;  or  he  can  take  it  up  at  any  point  and  continue  it. 
Telling  the  story  at  home  is  encouraged,  for  it  gives  added 
power  to  be  able  to  make  a  continuous  narrative  when  there 
is  no  teacher  or  eager  classmate  at  hand  to  suggest  or  to 
assist.  Pupils  who  tell  the  story  to  parents,  brothers,  or 
sisters,  usually  show  more  rapid  growth  in  language  and  a 
better  command  of  the  continuous  thought  of  the  narrative 
than  do  those  who  have  only  the  class  drill. 

About  the  third  day  after  the  introduction  of  the  story  the 
children  are  ready  to  write  some  part  of  it.  The  morning 
hour  is  generally  taken  for  this  purpose.  A 
simple  outline  is  placed  upon  the  board,  as : 
Rome,  hills,  gate,  river,  bridge,  Lars  Porsenna,  soldiers, 
Horatius.  This  is  to  assist  in  keeping  the  continuity  of 
thought,  a  difficult  task  for  children.  An  outline  for  this 
purpose  should  be  made  thoughtfully  by  the  teacher.  It 
should  be  a  careful  arrangement  of  successive  thoughts  in 
the  natural  progression  of  the  story,  whose  relation  one  to 
another  is  self-suggestive  to  the  inexperienced  little  com- 
posers. For  twenty  or  thirty  minutes  the  children  write, 
telling  the  story  in  about  the  form  that  it  has  already  been 


LITERATURE   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES  1 5 

given  in  oral  reproductions.  To  the  writers,  however,  it 
probably  seems  like  a  totally  new  presentation  of  the  story ; 
and  so  it  should,  for  to  many  of  them  it  will  be  the  first  com- 
plete reproduction.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  tire  the  little 
writers.  If  at  the  end  of  a  half  hour  the  papers  are  not 
finished,  they  should  be  taken  up,  and  the  completion  of  the 
story  left  for  the  next  day  or  for  several  successive  days. 
The  writing  must  not  become  burdensome;  it  should  be  a 
pleasure. 

To  find  material  for  the  stories  is  not  so  difficult  as  is 
often  imagined.  Children  like  life  and  action,  and  delight 
in  many  a  story  that  has  been  considered  adapted  only  to 
older  pupils.  Good,  interesting  writers  in  both  history  and 
literature  furnish  abundant  material ;  still  more  can  be  found 
in  periodicals.  Children  often  need  more  solid  intellectual 
food  than  is  given  in  many  school  courses,  and  they  thrive 
wonderfully  upon  it. 

The  following  is  an  original  reproduction  by  a  second 
grade  child,  written  independently  after  the  oral  class  repro- 
ductions. The  periods  and  capitals  are  well  placed.  Note 
how  the  story  interest  carries  the  continuity  of  thought. 

HORATIUS. 

Rome  was  built  on  seven  hills. 
Rome  had  a  large  wall  around  it. 
Rome  had  four  gates  in  the  wall. 

And  Rome  had  a  large  river  and  the  name  of  the  river  was 
the  Tiber  river. 

And  the  Romans  called  it  the  Father  Tiber  river. 

Horatius  was  the  gate  keeper. 

A  man  came  to  Rome  and  wanted  to  be  a  council  men  and 


1 6  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

they  did  not  want  him  to  be  and  he  went  off  and  got  an  large 
army  of  soldiers. 

Some  men  heard  that  Lars  Porsena  was  getting  an  army 
of  soldiers. 

They  went  around  to  the  houses  and  told  all  the  people. 

It  took  them  three  days  and  nights. 

They  got  in  to  Rome  and  they  saw  the  soldiers. 

Horatius  and  two  other  men  went  with  him  across  the 
bridge. 

they  killed  the  first  three  soldiers. 

They  killed  the  next  three. 

They  called  Horatius  and  the  two  men. 

The  two  men  ran  across  the  bridge. 

Horatius  stayed  too  long  and  the  bridge  fell  down  and 
Horatius  was  alone. 

He  prayed  to  the  river  and  he  jumped  in. 

They  thought  that  Horatius  would  not  come  out  of  the 
river. 

But  he  did  come  out  and  the  Romans  were  glad. 

THIRD  YEAR  GRADE 

In  this  grade  the  teacher  reads  many  if  not  all  of  the  stories 
and  poems,  so  that  the  words  of  the  writer  become  familiar 
to  the  children.  Easy  narration  by  the  teacher,  to  vivify  or 
to  simplify  the  words  of  the  author,  is  made  supplementary 
to  the  reading.  The  pupils  should  now  be  reading  many 
stories  for  themselves,  for  they  should  be  appreciating  and 
using  the  power  gained  by  their  knowledge  of  the  mechanics 
of  reading,  and  they  should  be  learning  how  to  get  from 
books  the  enjoyment  that  they  have  been  receiving  through 
the  lips  of  the  teacher. 


LITERATURE   IN    PRIMARY  GRADES  I/ 

In  composition  original  reproductions  should  now  super- 
sede composite  exercises,  the  latter  being  used  only  for  train- 
ing in  acquiring  continuity  of  thought  or  in 
Composition  °         .  .      /  r 

illustrating  some  special  features  of  writing. 

For  such  purposes  composite  lessons  remain  valuable  for 
several  years.  In  the  original  reproductions  topics  should  be 
given  for  short  papers.  If  these  are  chosen  from  consecu- 
tive stages  of  the  story  the  child  will  have  eventually  the 
complete  narrative,  a  satisfaction  to  him,  and  a  pleasure  to 
the  teacher  and  the  parent.  Such  papers  should  be  made 
into  a  note-book,  as  in  the  second  grade.  The  first  draft 
should  be  the  one  preserved  unless  mistakes  are  very  numer- 
ous ;  and  even  in  this  case  it  is  advisable  to  keep  the  original 
as  well  as  the  rewritten  sheet,  in  order  to  stimulate  the  child 
to  do  more  careful  work  on  succeeding  first  efforts.  Weak- 
ness is  being  educated  when  a  child  is  allowed  to  rewrite 
frequently.  Insist  upon  clear  pictures  before  the  reproduc- 
tion is  attempted.  If  a  child  can  close  his  eyes,  so  as  to  shut 
out  intrusive  externals,  and  can  imagine  that  he  sees  Sleepy 
Hollow,  Ichabod  Crane,  or  the  wild  ride  on  Gunpowder,  he 
will  be  able  to  tell  a  more  concise  and  vivid  story  than  if  the 
writing  is  entered  upon  without  the  clear  mental  pictures. 
The  following  story  of  King  Midas  is  an  original,  uncor- 
rected  third  grade  reproduction : 

THE  GOLDEN  TOUCH 


Once  there  was  a  very  rich  king  whose  name  was  Midas. 
He  had  a  little  daughter  he  liked  odd  names  so  he  called  her 
Marygold.    He  had  a  dungeon  under  his  palace.     When  he 
3 


1 8  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

wanted  to  be  happy  he  would  go  down  into  the  dungeon. 
Marygold  went  out  to  pick  buttercups  and  dandelions.  Midas 
said  Poh,  if  they  were  as  golden  as  they  look  they  would  be 
worth  picking.  Before  Midas  was  so  rich  he  had  a  garden 
of  roses  he  thought  the  roses  were  very  pretty.  He  use  to 
go  down  in  the  dungeon  and  wish  that  the  sun  when  it  was 
setting  it  was  gold  and  could  be  squeezed  into  a  golden  cup. 
One  day  a  shadow  fell  upon  his  gold.  He  said  in  a  surprise 
that  he  locked  the  door  tight.  The  stranger  said,  are  you 
satisfied.  No  said  Midas,  I  wish  that  everything  I  touch 

would  turn  to  gold. 

ii. 

The  stranger  promised  King  Midas  that  he  should  have 
his  wish.  Tomorrow  at  sunrise  you  will  have  the  Golden 
Touch.  When  he  woke  the  next  morning  he  touched  the 
things  around  him  and  they  remained  the  same  he  thought 
that  he  was  fooling  him.  After  the  sun  came  over  the  hills 
he  put  his  clothes  on  and  they  turned  to  a  suit  of  gold.  He 
went  out  and  touched  all  the  roses  and  they  became  a  thin 
plate  of  gold  and  the  worms  in  the  heart  became  gold. 

He  went  back  to  the  palace  to  get  his  breakfast.  King 
Midas  ordered  Marygold  to  be  called,  very  soon  he  heard 
her  coming  around  the  house  crying  bitterly  when  she 
opened  the  door  he  said  what  is  the  matter,  Marygold  said 
that  all  the  beautiful  roses  are  gold  and  have  know  fragrance. 
Everything  that  he  ate  turned  to  gold.  He  thought  that 
if  he  ate  it  quick  it  wouldn't  turn  to  gold.  So  he  put  a  hot 
potato  into  his  mouth  and  it  turned  to  gold  and  he  danced 
around  the  room.  Marygold  came  in  the  room  and  said 
what  is  the  matter  and  when  he  put  his  lips  to  kiss  her  she 
turned  to  a  golden  statue. 


LITERATURE  IN   PRIMARY  GRADES  19 

These  extracts  from  a  reproduction  show  the  difficulty  in 
combining  mechanical  accuracy  with  literary  creation.  There 
are  many  good  points  for  a  third  grade  writer, — life,  vigor- 
ous treatment,  continuity  of  thought,  accurate  spelling,  a  fair 
conception  of  paragraphing,  and  the  use  of  periods  and  cap- 
ital letters ;  and  there  are  several  indications  that  the  writer 
possessed  knowledge  that  was  not  used.  Some  sentence 
structures  are  weak  and  loose,  especially  where  the  thought 
grows  more  rapid,  but  the  sentence  structure  is  very  good 
in  other  parts  of  the  story.  Personal  revision  by  the  writer, 
when  undivided  attention  could  be  given  to  mechanical  accu- 
racy, would  probably  remove  the  greater  number  of  the  mis- 
takes and  strengthen  many  weak  places. 

FOURTH  YEAR  GRADE 

In  the  presentation  of  a  story  in  this  grade  the  children 
read  for  themselves  whenever  the  books  are  provided  in 
Method  sufficiently  large  numbers  to  permit  of  a 

class  exercise.  Otherwise  the  teacher  reads. 
Individual  reading  is  encouraged  constantly  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, so  that  the  pupils  are  learning  to  use  and  to 
understand  books  for  themselves  and  are  deriving  pleasure 
from  their  efforts.  Pupils  should  read  many  more  stories 
than  those  treated  as  class  work,  and  the  teacher  should  have 
on  hand  a  store  of  pleasing  and  profitable  reading  for  odd 
moments  during  the  day. 

Reproduction  follows  the  reading,  usually  after  an  inter- 
val of  a  day.  It  is  either  oral  or  written,  preferably  both. 
Only  the  regular  stories,  one  a  month,  are  so  treated ;  those 
read  by  the  pupils  for  themselves  or  by  the  teacher  as  a 
relaxation  are  rarely  taken  up  a  second  time.  The  monthly 


2O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

story  serves  many  purposes,  literary  and  linguistic.  The 
reproductions  are  on  detached  but  consecutive  topics,  giving 
opportunity  for  short,  clearly  pictured  scenes  in  the  papers 
that  are  preserved  in  the  notebooks. 

There  is  a  great  deal  of  material  for  language  lessons  in 
these  stories.  In  fact,  the  reproductions,  the  composition 
work,  the  correction  of  papers,  are  all  treated  under  lan- 
guage. Correlation  is  very  close  in  all  of  the  essential 
branches ;  differentiation  belongs  to  analyses  of  methods  and 
material,  pupils  need  not  be  troubled  with  it. 

The  purpose  is  not  to  give  an  immense  amount  of  infor- 
mation, but  to  arouse  the  child's  lasting  interest  in  the  sub- 

_.  ject,  to  show  him  how  to  read,  and  to  put 

Jt  urposc 

exhilarating  material  into  his  hands.  There 
is  subject  matter  enough  in  any  one  of  the  Bible  stories  or 
the  narratives  from  the  "  Odyssey  "  for  much  more  advanced 
pupils,  so  care  must  be  taken  not  to  tell  these  fourth  grade 
children  too  much.  Such  a  mistake  would  overload  the 
course  of  study,  and,  probably,  by  making  teacher  and  pupils 
feel  hurried,  it  would  create  a  distaste  for  many  of  the 
stories.  The  first  thought  in  presenting  the  stories  is  pleas- 
ure,— childish,  natural  enjoyment.  This  can  be  gained  only 
by  easy  narration  or  reading,  interspersed  with  conversa- 
tions. The  reproductions  should  have  the  same  purpose  in 
mind,  although  progress  must  never  be  forgotten.  Rightly 
handled,  however,  progress,  in  both  literary  and  mechanical 
directions,  is  one  of  the  keen  enjoyments  of  the  work. 

Three  aims  should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind: — interest 
in  our  world  heritage  through  participation  in  the  well 
known  stories  that  are  a  part  of  the  world's  culture;  self- 
development  through  this  world  heritage,  or  a  conscious 


LITERATURE   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES  21 

growth  in  power  on  the  part  of  the  child;  acquisition  of 
knowledge.  If  the  first  two  purposes  are  remembered  the 
third  follows  as  a  matter  of  course. 

A  fourth  grade  teacher1  gives  in  the  following  paragraphs 
some  of  her  ideas  about  teaching  literature  stories : 

Literature  as  presented  to  the  children  is  not  the  intensive 
study  that  is  given  to  mature  minds,  even  when  the  subject 
matter  is  the  same.  In  the  elementary  grades,  the  teacher's 
aim  is  to  lead  the  pupils  into  enjoyment  of  literature,  for 
pleasure  in  good  and  beautiful  stories  is  the  first  step  toward 
future  appreciation  of  authors. 

A  little  mystery  or  a  suggestion  of  tragedy  quickly 
arouses  interest.  David's  encounter  with  Goliath,  Ulysses 
and  the  Cyclops,  are  received  with  avidity.  Repeatedly  the 
question  is  asked,  "  What  is  the  name  of  the  book  that  has 
that  story  in  it?"  Or,  "  Is  that  story  in  the  public  library?" 
Thus  the  children  are  led  into  reading  for  themselves. 

After  the  story  has  been  given  and  some  parts  repeated, 
it  is  discussed  by  the  pupils,  who  ask  questions  about  the 
portions  that  have  not  been  understood,  or 
and  Poems  *n  whicn  tnev  ^ave  taken  special  pleasure. 

In  this  way  the  teacher  is  able  to  measure 
the  interest  of  the  class  as  a  whole,  as  well  as  of  individual 
pupils,  a  great  assistance  in  knowing  how  to  prepare  the  next 
story  for  presentation.  The  poems,  which  are  usually  short, 
are  presented  in  a  somewhat  different  manner.  Every  poem 
is  either  written  on  the  board  or  mimeographed,  so  that  a 
child  can  have  his  own  copy.  The  pupils  read  it  slowly,  dis- 
cussing the  thoughts,  and  getting  the  story.  They  are  asked 
to  tell  from  the  poem  itself,  if  they  can,  why  the  poet  wrote 

1Miss  Lottie  Grunsky. 


22  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

it.  They  talk  about  it  freely,  choosing  favorite  expressions 
or  thoughts,  pointing  out  "pictures,"  finding  new  ideas, 
making  it  their  own.  Many  portions  are  memorized  almost 
unconsciously ;  some  poems  are  learned  outright.  There  are 
many  explanations  and  discussions  based  upon  the  poems, 
but  there  are  few  reproductions  except  of  the  story  running 
through  any  one  of  them. 


CHAPTER  III 

PRESENTATION,  ACQUISITION,  AND   ILLUSTRATION 
OF  LITERATURE  IN  GRAMMAR  GRADES 

FIFTH  YEAR  GRADE 

Pupils  in  the  fifth  year  in  school  enjoy  many  poems  by 
Longfellow,  who  has  a  delightful  power  in  picturing  vividly 
Material  scenes  of  life  and  action.  The  poems  should 

not  succeed  one  another  too  rapidly,  nor 
should  they  be  hurriedly  presented.  The  teacher's  observa- 
tion of  the  attitude  and  attainments  of  the  class  should  be 
the  guide  in  both  respects.  The  first  thing  to  be  considered 
is  that  the  pupils  gain  a  view  of  a  complete  poem.  This  can 
be  accomplished  in  several  ways :  The  teacher  may  read  the 
poem  through,  stopping  over  every  stanza  long  enough  for 
the  children  to  give  naturally  its  substance,  and,  at  the  end, 
the  whole  poem  may  be  summarized ;  the  pupils,  instead  of 
the  teacher,  may  read,  a  similar  stanza  analysis  being  given ; 
the  pupils  may  read  the  poem  for  themselves  before  coming 
into  class,  looking  out  the  thoughts  for  themselves.  The 
last  treatment  is  the  most  difficult  for  children ;  it  should  not 
be  insisted  upon  too  rigorously  nor  too  often,  for  to  do  so 
would  probably  result  in  dislike  for  poems.  Pupils  of  this 
age  grow  but  slowly  into  individual  analyses,  especially  of 
poems,  although  they  greatly  enjoy  this  work  with  the 
teacher.  The  purpose  in  this  preparatory  glimpse  of  the 
poems  is  to  gain  the  power  of  uniting  several  successive 

23 


24  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

thoughts  into  a  complete  whole ;  to  enjoy  the  poem ;  to  be 
constructive  rather  than  analytic ;  to  have  in  mind  the  whole 
instead  of  the  parts.  Pupils  must  be  trained  in  the  acquisi- 
tion of  this  power.  Classes  may  read  in  the  ordinary  school- 
room manner  such  a  poem  as  Longfellow's  "  Ropewalk " 
several  times  without  any  interest  in  it,  for  they  have  ob- 
tained no  clear  conception  of  what  it  is  about ;  but  when  they 
picture  to  themselves  the  long  alley,  the  making  of  the  rope, 
and  the  poet  musing  over  the  various  uses  to  which  the  rope 
here  made  can  be  put,  they  will  not  only  enjoy  a  short  study 
of  the  poem,  but  they  will  also  suggest  several  important 
uses  of  rope  that  Longfellow  seems  to  have  forgotten. 

We  enjoy  literature  from  the  complete  thoughts  that  we 
take  out  of  it.     To  begin  a  poem  with  minute  analysis  or 

intensive  study  tends  to  leave  an  impression 
Intensive  £  ,  M  .  Tr  , 

Study  °*  details,  not  °f  a  whole.     If  such  an  intro- 

duction to  beautiful  poems  is  distasteful  to 
the  more  mature  minds  of  high  school  age,  which  are  often 
turned  forever  from  poetry  because  of  the  interminable  de- 
tails and  analyses  forced  upon  them,  how  repugnant  it  must 
be  to  younger  pupils !  Impressions  thus  gained  are  respon- 
sible for  much  of  the  dislike  for  "  school  reading."  If,  by 
getting  the  complete  story  into  their  minds,  the  children 
enter  first  into  the  life,  motion,  vigor,  of  such  a  poem  as 
"  The  Skeleton  in  Armor,"  they  usually  take  up  readily  more 
detailed  study  of  difficult  words  and  passages ;  indeed,  they 
frequently  want  to  know  what  these  very  portions  mean,  for 
they  come  to  see  that  some  thought  is  not  complete  without 
an  understanding  of  the  more  intricate  passages.  This  is 
usually  all  the  intensive  work  needed  by  young  children,  or 
that  it  is  advisable  to  give  them. 


LITERATURE   IN    GRAMMAR   GRADES  2$ 

Word  studies  should  be  growing  in  importance  by  the 
time  the.  fifth  grade  is  reached.     Selection  of  synonyms,  de- 
fining words,  giving  attention  to  root  sylla- 
Studies  kles>  prefixes,  suffixes,  and  their  meanings, 

may  all  be  made  interesting  research  for  the 
children,  who  are  thus  growing  in  knowledge  of  words  and 
power  over  them.  Training  should  be  given  in  the  mys- 
teries of  the  dictionary,  for,  to  a  child  beginning  its  use,  it  is 
really  a  sealed  book. 

The  training  of  earlier  years  in  forming  clear  concepts 
should  be   continued.     Narrative   drawings   by   the   pupils 
strengthen  the  ability  to  do  this  by  giving 
Details  visible  form  and  completeness  to  the  imag- 

ined pictures.  Outlines  improve  the  judg- 
ment and  the  power  of  analysis,  both  of  which  are  weak  with 
children  of  this  age.  Maps  make  more  real  the  geographical 
references,  thus  broadening  the  child's  knowledge  of  the 
world.  Where  the  globe  and  wall  maps  are  used  intelli- 
gently, and  no  attempt  is  made  to  require  a  child  to  memorize 
all  that  is  told  him,  map  work  is  a  delight  to  children,  who 
pore  over  maps  again  and  again,  thus  gradually  absorbing 
what  it  would  be  impossible  for  them  to  learn  and  assimilate 
in  many  lessons  of  drill. 

The  pupils  see  some  of  the  simpler  beauties  of  the  poems 
if  their  attention  is  called  to  the  comparisons,  which  can  soon 
be  differentiated  into  similes,  metaphors,  and  personifica- 
tions. There  should  be  no  intention  of  teaching  figures  of 
speech ;  the  desire  is  to  show  how  more  enjoyment  can  be 
obtained  from  the  poems.  The  result,  however,  is  that  many 
of  the  pupils  do  learn  these  three  figures  very  accurately, 
while  others  are  prepared  by  observation  to  learn  them  more 


26  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

readily  in  later  years.     This  recognition  of  the  figures  by 
fifth  grade  pupils  and  naming  them  correctly  should  come 
slowly  and  by  imitation,  rather  than  by  drills  and  direct 
teaching.    The  teacher  explains  often  how  she  recognizes  each 
one,  and  the  children  gradually  acquire  the  same  power. 
The  first  step,  that  of  selecting  a  comparison,  will  be  enough 
for  many  slowly  maturing  minds. 
The  following  thoughts  are  from  a  fifth  grade  teacher : 1 
Little  reproduction  is  attempted  with  the  poems  by  Long- 
fellow, for  it  is  thought  better  to  have  the  child  retain  the 

Reproduction  poet's  own  charming  expressions.  Two  of 
the  main  objects  of  this  year  are  to  inspire 
in  the  child  a  love  for  the  beauty  of  the  thought  expressed 
in  a  poem,  and  a  recognition  of  some  beauty  of  form  as 
found  in  rhythm  and  musical  rhymes.  If  a  reproduction  of 
such  a  poem  as  "  The  Village  Blacksmith  "  is  asked  for,  we 
find  it  all  cheapened,  even  to  the  child  himself.  He  is  right 
when  he  says,  "  I  know  it,  but  I  can't  say  it."  Who  would 
attempt  to  express  those  thoughts  in  any  language  but  that 
of  Longfellow?  In  a  poem  like  "The  Wreck  of  the  Hes- 
perus," where  a  clearly  defined  story  is  found,  reproduction 
is  in  place ;  but  it  is  the  story  of  the  whole  that  is  asked  for, 
not  an  exhaustive  paraphrase  of  stanza  after  stanza. 

After  reading  the  poem  for  the  first  general  conception, 
we  go  back  and  make  a  more  intensive  study.     The  pupils 
are  asked  to  look  out  for  themselves  the 
Study  meanings  of  the  new  words  found  in  the 

stanzas,  slow  work  at  first,  for  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  year  a  fifth  grade  pupil  is  but  slightly  acquainted 
with  his  dictionary,  and  has  to  be  given  special  lessons  in  its 
1Miss  Elma  Hopkins. 


LITERATURE  IN    GRAMMAR   GRADES  2/ 

use.  Again  we  go  through  the  poem  to  see  the  pictures  to 
be  found  there.  The  pupils  look  for  the  number  of  changes, 
the  "pictures,"  which  they  can  find  and  describe.  Some- 
times the  passage  is  read  to  them  while  they  sit  with  eyes 
closed,  and  then  they  tell  all  that  they  have  imagined,  going 
even  into  details.  What  one  does  not  see,  another  sees ;  and 
many  times,  when  ideas  do  not  agree,  very  animated  dis- 
cussions are  brought  out  as  one  pupil  tries  to  convince 
another  about  the  right  interpretation.  Finally,  out  of  a 
combination  of  the  suggested  ideas  and  of  those  clearly  ex- 
pressed, a  very  definite  word  picture  is  brought  forth.  The 
child  has  been  made  to  see  with  his  mind's  eye,  and  has  been 
led  to  stand  and  express  himself  in  words  coming  from 
independent  thinking,  not  in  the  language  of  reproduction. 
Personal  study  along  various  lines  is  carried  on  every  day. 
The  dictionary  is  to  be  used,  words  are  to  be  studied,  papers 

are  to  be  written.  The  greater  part  of  the 
Personal  ,  ,  ,  .  , 

Study  *lme         these  purposes  comes  from  periods 

set  aside  for  the  more  formal  language  work 
and  for  penmanship.  Sometimes  the  pupils  are  asked  to 
copy  a  poem,  especially  for  training  in  punctuation,  spelling, 
and  accurate  transcribing. 

Finally,  the  poem  is  read  through  carefully,  considered 
line  by  line,  stanza  by  stanza,  in  order  to  leave  with  the  chil- 
dren a  clear  understanding  of  the  complete 
Hvipfll 
Reading  thought.     Then  an  outline  is  made  by  the 

class.  The  pupils  suggest  the  topics,  the 
best  ones  are  chosen,  written  on  the  board  in  proper  arrange- 
ment, and  'copied  during  the  next  study  period.  Part,  or 
often  all,  of  a  poem  is  learned,  and  in  some  cases  written  out 
from  memory.  In  such  poems  as  "Excelsior,"  where  a 


28  METHODS   IN    TEACHING 

moral  lesson  may  be  inculcated,  the  deeper  thought  is  left 
until  the  last.  Merely  the  story  is  taken  first;  then,  if  the 
children  seem  ready  for  the  inner  thought,  it  is  taken,  but 
it  is  never  forced.  Recently,  after  the  study  of  "  Excelsior," 
a  particularly  appreciative  child  asked  if  the  poem  did  not 
have  another  meaning  than  the  one  that  had  just  been 
brought  out  by  the  story.  The  question  led  to  a  discussion 
of  the  great  life  lesson  suggested  by  Longfellow,  after  which 
the  children  loved  the  poem  far  more  than  they  did  the  others 
studied.  Toward  the  close  of  the  school  year,  when  a  paper 
was  written  on  "  My  favorite  Poem,"  more  than  half  the 
class  chose  "Excelsior"  and  "The  Village  Blacksmith," 
giving  in  substance  as  a  reason  for  the  choice  that  the  first 
might  apply  to  themselves,  and  that  the  second  might  mean 
any  good  man  whom  they  knew.  The  time  given  to  these 
poems  varies  considerably.  Such  a  one  as  "  The  Skeleton 
in  Armor,"  where  the  life  of  a  strange  people  in  a  foreign 
country  and  a  distant  age  has  to  be  discussed  as  a  prepara- 
tion to  the  poem  itself,  may  take  from  two  to  three  weeks. 
The  shorter  poems  may  be  completed  in  two  or  three  days. 

The  papers  of  the  pupils,  saved  throughout  the  year,  show 
that  a  great  deal  is  gained  from  ten  months'  study  of  Long- 
Results  fellow.  There  are  drills  in  reading  and  writ- 
ing; the  arousing  of  independent  thought; 
the  inspiring  of  a  love  for  Longfellow  and  his  poems ;  the 
memorizing  of  many  poems,  usually  with  little  effort;  an 
ability,  gained  by  nearly  all  the  class,  to  read  and  enjoy  for 
themselves  the  simpler  poems  of  our  writer,  and  to  see  and 
appreciate  some  of  the  beauties  of  his  style. 

The  following  reproduction  of  a  poem  by  Longfellow  was 
written  by  a  fifth  grade  girl.     It  is  accompanied  by  a  study 


LITERATURE   IN   GRAMMAR   GRADES  29 

of  words  and  another  of  figures  given  the  class  in  connection 
with  reading  the  poem.  Probably  the  majority  of  the  pupils 
knew  much  or  all  of  the  poem  by  heart.  The  quotations 
used  are  from  memory,  as  is  shown  by  the  failure  to  remem- 
ber the  arrangement  of  lines.  No  corrections  have  been 
made. 

THE  WRECK  OF  THE  HESPERUS. 

It  was  a  cold  stormy  day,  and  the  schooner  Hesperus  was 
sailing  along  the  coast  of  Massachusetts.  The  skipper  had 
taken  his  little  daughter  with  him  to  bear  him  company. 
She  was  a  beautiful  little  girl  with  eyes  as  blue  as  the  fairy 
flax. 

He  was  standing  beside  helm  watching  the  veering  flaw 
blow  the  smoke  in  different  directions  when  an  old  sailor 
came  up  to  him  and  said,  I  pray  thee  put  into  yonder  port, 
for  I  fear  a  hurricane.  Last  night  the  moon  had  a  golden 
ring,  and  tonight  no  moon  we  see."  The  skipper  did  not 
believe  what  the  sailor  had  said  and  paid  no  attention  to  him. 

Down  came  the  storm  and  smote  the  vessel  in  its  strength. 
The  skipper  called  his  little  daughter  to  him  and  said,  "  do 
not  tremble  so,  for  I  can  weather  the  roughest  gale  that  ever 
wind  did  blow."  He  wrapped  her  in  his  great  seaman's 
coat  and  bound  her  to  a  mast. 

The  little  girl  said  that  she  heard  the  church-bells  ringing 
and  asked  her  father  what  they  were  and  he  answered  that  it 
was  the  fog-bell  on  a  rock  bound  coast,  and  he  steered  for 
the  open  sea.  She  heard  the  sound  of  guns  and  asked  her 
father  what  it  ment  and  he  said,  some  ship  in  distress  that 
can  not  live  in  such  an  angry  sea."  Again  she  cried  out 
that  she  saw  a  gleaming  light  and  asked  what  it  was,  but 
her  father  answered  never  a  word  for  he  was  dead. 


3O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

He  was  lashed  to  the  helm  all  stiff  and  stark  and  a  lantern 
gleamed  on  his  fixed  and  glassy  eyes.  When  the  child  saw 
her  father  was  dead  she  prayed  that  she  might  be  saved,  and 
she  thought  of  Christ  who  stilled  the  wave  on  the  Lake  of 
Galilee. 

The  vessel  swept  through  the  sleet  and  snow  tow'rds  the 
reef  of  Norman's  Woe. 

The  vessel  struck  on  some  rocks,  and  like  a  vessel  of  glass 
she  stove  and  sank.  In  the  morning  a  fisherman  stood  on 
the  shore  aghast  to  see  the  beautiful  child  lashed  to  a  drift- 
ing mast.  The  tears  were  frozen  on  her  eyes  and  her  hair 
like  the  brown  sea-weed  floating  on  the  waves. 

"  Such  was  the  wreck  of  the  Hesperus, 

In  the  midnight  and  the  snow 
Christ  save  us  all  from  a  death  like  this 
On  the  reef  of  Norman's  Woe." 

In  ordinary  class  work  this  paper,  which  is  presented  in 
uncorrected  form,  would  be  returned  to  its  writer  for  per- 
sonal correction.  Omitted  words  would  be  supplied  in  all 
cases,  probably,  with  a  possible  exception  in  the  last  sentence, 
where  the  child's  ear  might  not  recognize  the  necessity  of 
the  verb  in  connection  with  "  floating." 

Sentence  structure,  so  difficult  a  problem  for  children,  is 
faulty  in  the  repetition  of  "  and."  There  is  excellent  drill 
for  the  class  in  putting  such  sentences  on  the  board  and  in 
having  the  pupils  develop  better  structures  by  the  omission 
of  "and"  or  by  the  use  of  relative  pronouns  or  adverbial 
connectives. 

There  can  be  no  objection  to  the  use  of  the  poet's  own 
words  in  such  a  paper.  The  child  is  consciously  reproducing 


LITERATURE   IN   GRAMMAR   GRADES  31 

or  quoting,  and  the  elevation  of  thought  and  language  is 

very  evident. 

WORD  STUDY  LESSON. 

I.  Schooner,  sharp  built  vessel,  having  two  or  more  masts. 
2.  Skipper,  master  of  a  small  vessel.  3.  Helm,  instrument 
for  steering  a  ship.  4.  Veering  flaw,  changing  wind. 

(This  careful  defining  of  words  is  a  frequent  exercise, 
every  lesson  containing  from  fifteen  to  twenty-five  words.) 

SIMILES. 

As  the  fairy  flax.  As  the  hawthorn  buds.  Like  yeast. 
Like  the  dawn  of  day.  Like  a  frightened  steed.  Like  a 
sheeted  ghost.  Like  icicles  from  her  deck.  As  carded  wool. 
Like  the  horns  of  an  angry  bull.  Like  a  vessel  of  glass. 

SIXTH  YEAR  GRADE 

Literature  and  history  are  still  alternated  in  this  grade  in 
periods  of  ten  weeks  each.  Whittier  is  the  poet  for  the  year. 
M  .  .  .  The  first  ten  weeks  are  given  to  several 

short  poems  and  "  Snow-Bound " ;  during 
the  second  literature  period  some  more  of  the  short  poems 
and  "  Among  the  Hills  "  are  read.  It  is  desirable  that  the 
teacher  plan  to  keep  before  the  pupils  the  complete  thought 
of  a  short  poem,  and  of  every  division  of  a  long  poem.  This 
is  more  important  as  the  works  read  grow  longer  and  the 
opportunities  for  intensive  study  increase.  There  is  great 
pleasure  for  pupils  in  "  Snow-Bound "  and  "  Among  the 
Hills,"  provided  that  the  methods  and  difficulties  belonging 
to  maturer  study  are  not  forced  upon  their  young  minds. 
Many  involved  sentence  constructions  are  readily  mastered 
by  grammatical  analyses ;  that  is,  by  connecting  subject  with 
predicate,  locating  modifiers,  or  by  using  simple  diagrams. 


$2  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

This  is  not  done  in  the  grammatical  spirit ;  it  is  for  assistance 
in  literary  interpretation,  although  the  practice  strengthens 
the  child  greatly  in  understanding  his  grammar  and  in  apply- 
ing it  to  his  daily  needs. 

There  are  delightful  character  studies  in  "  Snow-Bound." 
The  pupils  should  observe,  discuss,  and  recreate  the  char- 
acter of  the  father,  mother,  aunt,  and  other  members  of  the 
family,  not  forgetting  Whittier  himself.  Have  them  inter- 
pret a  New  England  home  and  the  life  of  the  affectionate 
Quaker  family.  Lead  them  to  enjoy  the  beautiful  figures 
of  speech.  Some  of  the  last  stanzas  are  too  difficult  for 
pupils  of  this  grade,  but  that  is  no  reason  why  they  should 
not  read  all  the  delightful  first  portion  of  the  poem.  -What 
can  not  be  understood  can  be  omitted,  or,  better  yet,  it  can 
be  shown  as  a  fitting  conclusion  by  means  of  the  teacher's 
interpretation. 

The  prelude  to  "  Among  the  Hills  "  should  rarely  be  at- 
tempted by  sixth  grade  pupils  for  a  beginning,  but  it  may 
be  used  as  an  admirable  ending  and  summary  of  the  poet's 
thought.  After  the  scenes  of  the  poem  itself  have  been  pic- 
tured, the  children  are  ready  to  imagine  the  drowsy  heat 
of  the  summer  day  and  the  desolate,  forlorn  homes,  where 
love  is  lacking. 

Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  oral  reading.  Pupils 
in  the  grammar  grades  lose  much  of  the  proficiency  in  read- 
ing aloud  that  has  been  gained  in  the  primary  classes.  This 
is  due  in  part  to  growing  self-consciousness  on  the  part  of 
the  maturing  boys  and  girls,  and  in  part  to  the  fact  that 
silent  reading  is  supplanting  reading  aloud,  making  the  latter 
seem  only  an  exercise  instead  of  a  means  of  acquiring  knowl- 
edge as  it  was  in  younger  days. 


LITERATURE   IN    GRAMMAR   GRADES  33 

The  following  methods  and  experiences  are  taken  from 
the  work  of  a  sixth  grade  teacher : * 

Some  of  the  aims  in  literature  for  this  grade  are,  to  give 

the  children  a  genuine  appreciation  of  a  few  of  Whittier's 

beautiful  and  uplifting  thoughts ;  to  cultivate 

the  ability  to  read  intelligently  aloud  and 

silently;  to  train  a  readiness  in  expression,  both  oral  and 

written. 

In  "  Snow-Bound  "  and  "  Among  the  Hills  "  the  pupils 
are  prepared  by  a  discussion  of  the  geographical  setting  of 

the  poem  for  the  climatic  conditions  and  the 
Treatment 

occupations  that  will  be  referred  to  in  the 
reading.  The  pupils  then  listen  appreciatively  to  the  reading 
of  "  Snow-Bound  "  by  the  teacher.  These  discussions  and 
readings  may  take  three  days,  but  after  them  the  children 
are  ready  and  eager  to  begin  their  own  work  with  the  poem. 

After  a  general  but  complete  thought  of  the  poem  has 
been  grasped  by  means  of  the  reading  by  the  teacher,  the 
poem  is  divided  into  three  parts  for  ease  in  studying  it : — the 
storm,  the  evening  at  the  fireside,  and  the  day  following  the 
storm.  The  pupils  now  read,  giving  their  own  interpreta- 
tion of  difficult  thoughts  and  phrasings.  Aided  by  a  few 
suggestions  from  the  teacher,  they  picture  the  Whittier  home 
on  the  dreary  December  day, — the  low-hanging  clouds,  the 
great  circle  around  the  sun,  the  east  wind  bringing  from  the 
distant  shore  the  roar  of  the  angry  ocean,  all  forerunners  of 
the  coming  storm.  We  imagine  the  day's  work,  digging  a 
path  to  the  barn  and  preparing  for  the  coming  night,  when 
all  gather  around  the  blazing  fire  to  listen  to  songs  and 
stories.  The  kitchen,  too,  is  new  and  strange  to  all  the  class. 

1Miss  Charlotte  Treanor. 
4 


34  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

The  children  are  greatly  interested  to  know  that  the  old 
house  is  now  owned  by  the  Whittier  Memorial  Association ; 
and  that  the  bake-kettles,  bellows,  foot-warmers,  candle 
moulds,  and  some  pieces  of  old  china  are  still  preserved. 
The  first  division  of  the  story  having  now  been  read,  it  is 
completed  by  narrative  drawings,  written  descriptions,  brief 
outlines  of  different  topics,  and  language  exercises. 

The  second  division  of  the  poem  with  us  is  the  evening 
at  the  fireside,  where, 

"  Shut  in  from  all  the  world  without, 
We  sat  the  clean  winged  hearth  about." 

This  we  try  to  picture  very  clearly,  for  this  is  the  home  life 
of  the  Whittier  family  as  seen  by  the  loving  son  and  brother. 
At  last  the  great  logs  crumble  down ;  the  "  bull's  eye  watch  " 
points  to  the  hour  of  nine ;  and  the  pleasant  circle  separates 
for  the  night.  The  uncle  remains  behind  to  cover  up  the 
embers;  the  mother  stays  to  express  in  quiet  her  grateful 
thanks  for  the  blessings  that  have  been  granted  all ;  the  boys 
climb  to  their  chill  attic,  where  they  lie  listening  to  the  storm 
sounds  without.  Soon  sleep  steals  over  them,  guiding  them 

into 

"  The  summer  land  of  dreams." 

Through  this  part  of  the  poem  comparisons  of  the  characters 
are  made  and  short  sketches  are  written  about  the  members 
of  the  family. 

The  third  division  of  the  poem  deals  with  events  after  the 
clearing  of  the  storm,  when,  at  last,  with  the  coming  of  the 
village  newspaper,  the  ice-locked  door  of  the  world  swings 
open  again,  and  the  family  is  in  touch  with  fellowmen.  It 


LITERATURE  IN    GRAMMAR   GRADES  35 

is  with  regret  that  we  reach  the  point  where  Whittier  closes 
the  book  of  his  memories,  for  by  this  time  the  members  of 
the  family  are  our  friends  and  their  interests  are  ours.  The 
last  two  stanzas,  however,  are  too  difficult  for  sixth  grade 
children,  and  the  poem  closes  for  them  with  Whittier's  apos- 
trophe to  memory,  the  "  angel  of  the  backward  look." 

The  papers,  or  "  stories,"  based  upon  the  poem  are  now 
written.     When  they  are  finished  enough  time  has  elapsed 
after  the  second  reading  of  the  poem  so  that 
^  can  ^e  ^ven  its  fina^  reading  without  the 


Reading 

repetition  being  at  all  tiresome.     This  final 

reading  serves  to  put  all  the  thoughts  together  as  a  whole, 
to  connect  its  pictures,  to  interweave  its  characters  and  re- 
citals, and  to  discover  new  beauties.  These  are  found  in  the 
figures  of  speech,  which  are  studied  for  the  enjoyment  that 
they  give,  not  to  develop  rhetorical  knowledge.  One  result, 
however,  is  that  the  pupils,  already  prepared  in  the  fifth 
grade  by  their  studies  of  comparisons,  recognize  with  con- 
siderable readiness  nearly  all  the  similes,  metaphors,  and  per- 
sonifications, calling  them  by  their  proper  names.  This  un- 
derstanding of  the  simpler  figures  adds  greatly  to  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  children  in  the  poems. 

Memorizing  is  frequent,  but  is  made  as  easy  as  possible. 
The  children  are  at  an  age  when  they  remember  easily  and 
Mem  riz*  constant  supervision  is  given  to  training  and 

exercising  the  memory.  Much  of  the  poem 
is  learned  almost  unconsciously.  The  teacher  may  start  a 
line,  asking  someone  to  continue,  someone  else  to  go  farther 
in  the  quotation,  then  still  another  to  give  the  whole.  By 
almost  daily  observance  of  this  practice  the  pupils  form  the 
habit  of  memorizing,  and  the  amount  retained  by  some  pupils 


36  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

is  surprising.  Memories  thus  trained  hold  on  most  tena- 
ciously to  what  is  read. 

The  treatment  of  shorter  poems  is  about  the  same  as 
that  of  divisions  of  long  poems ;  that  is,  mastery  of  a  com- 
plete thought;  the  connection  of  successive 
Short  Poems 

thoughts;  a  first  reading  for  understanding 

the  poem,  for  grasping  its  complete  thought ;  a  second  read- 
ing for  detailed  study,  for  grasping  and  connecting  the  suc- 
cessive thoughts ;  separation  of  the  purely  interpretative  and 
the  purely  analytical ;  oral  reproductions  or  narratives  based 
on  the  thoughts  of  the  poem;  written  reproductions;  word 
studies ;  a  final  reading  to  leave  in  the  mind  the  poem  as  a 
whole,  encasing  its  beautiful  wordings  and  thoughts.  A  few 
of  the  shorter  poems  by  Whittier  receive  special  geograph- 
ical treatment,  as  "  The  Fishermen "  and  "  The  Lumber- 
men." "  The  Poor  Voter  on  Election  Day  "  may  be  read 
after  a  mock  election. 

Illustrations  of  various  sorts  are  used.     There  are  Perry 
pictures  and  selections  from  magazines  and  other  publica- 
tions ;  the  children  make  narrative  drawings 
Illustrations 

of  incidents  selected  by  themselves  or  sug- 
gested by  the  teacher.  This  year  Whittier's  home  on  "  that 
bleak  December  day  "  was  constructed  by  the  children.  The 
house,  the  corncrib,  the  wellsweep,  were  made  by  the  boys ; 
cotton  was  used  for  the  snow;  the  members  of  the  family 
were  represented  by  tiny  dolls  dressed  by  the  girls.  The 
miniature  stage  was  set  to  show 

"  Sweet  doorway  pictures  of  the  girls," 

as  the  oxen  and  the  drivers  came  plodding  along  down  the 
hillside. 


LITERATURE   IN    GRAMMAR   GRADES  37 

The  tetm  closes  with  a  sketch  of  Whittier's  life  as  it  is 
known  after  twenty  weeks  spent  in  the  study  of  his  poems. 

By  the  time  the  sixth  grade  is  reached  the  papers  are  too 
long  to  be  given  in  their  entirety.  Extracts,  however,  show 
some  of  the  progress  made  by  the  pupil  in  composition  and 
in  his  comprehension  of  literature.  They  also  indicate  lines 
of  correction  and  guidance  for  the  teacher. 

AMONG  THE  HILLS. 
Prelude. 

Whittier  commences  the  prelude  of  "Among  the  Hills" 
by  telling  of  a  hot,  quiet,  sultry,  summer  day.  There  was 
only  a  little  wind  and  that  was  a  high  one,  because  just  the 
tops  of  the  maples  made  a  faint  motion.  Everything  seemed 
to  be  lazy  and  the  only  sounds  were  the  locust  and  a  hay 
wagon  creaking  along  with  the  driver  half  asleep.  The 
goldenrods  were  drooping  in  the  sun  and  through  the  door 
came  a  drowsy  smell  of  heliotrope,  clover  and  mignonette. 
The  harvesters  were  resting  under  the  trees  as  it  was  in  the 
hottest  part  of  the  day,  which  was  noon.  As  they  were 
resting  there  they  told  riddles  and  sang. 

The  day  was  very  hot  and  hazy  and  the  sheep  were  hud- 
dled up  against  the  stone  wall,  for  it  was  the  coolest  and 
shadiest  place  they  could  find.  Whittier  had  been  busy  a 
long  time  writing  and  lecturing  about  slavery  but  now,  when 
he  has  finished,  he  begins  this  poem.  He  says  that  all  are 
not  idle,  a  farmer's  son  who  took  a  fancy  to  work  did  his 
work  in  the  field  and  was  proud  of  it. 

The  farmer  and  his  family  were  willing  to  do  their  work 
and  as  there  was  love,  harmony,  and  beauty  in  this  home  the 


or 


38  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

work  seemed  easier.  As  the  farmer  loves  his  wife,  he  is 
just,  generous,  and  tender  toward  her.  After  Whittier  de- 
scribed this  home  he  said, 

"  I  know  too  well  the  picture  has  another  side." 

Then  he  thinks  of  away  back  and  describes  a  bad,  dirty 
home.  The  people  are  well  off  but  they  are  so  stingy  and 
selfish  that  everything  seems  uncomfortable  and  they  grow 
old  before  their  time.  There  is  no  love  or  beauty  or  har- 
mony in  their  home  and  nothing  seems  happy  as  in  the  other 
home.  They  have  no  flowers,  trees,  or  vines  around  and 
the  only  things  growing  are  weeds  and  burdocks,  because 
they  grow  without  cultivation.  These  people  do  not  notice 
anything  beautiful,  as  the  turning  of  leaves  in  October,  the 
sparrow's  and  bobolink's  song,  the  beautiful  hills,  the  woods, 
and  the  sun  and  flowers. 

They  go  to  church  because  they  are  afraid  of  the  unseen 
Powers,  but  when  it  comes  to  pay  pulpit-tax  or  pew  rent 
they  grumbled. 

The  walls  of  the  house  were  blistering  in  the  sun,  because 
there  were  no  vines  or  trees  to  shade  them.  Instead  of  cur- 
tains, rags  were  stretched  across  the  window  panes.  There 
was  confusion  in  the  kitchen  and  the  floor  was  not  washed, 
the  only  times  it  was  cleaned  was  with  a  broom.  The  best 
room  was  like  a  cellar  and  as  it  was  always  shut  up  from 
the  air  it  was  damp  and  suffocating.  There  were  no  books 
in  this  room  and  the  only  picture  was  that  of  an  old  green 
haired,  peony  cheeked  woman  sitting  under  willows  that 
couldn't  be  recognized. 

The  women  that  lived  here  were  always  complaining  and 
quarreling  and  the  men  were  cross  and  sullen.  These  peo- 


LITERATURE  IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES  39 

pie  had  no  love,  and  they  piled  up  their  rubbish  against  the 
chimney,  then  covered  it  with  logs  so  that  it  couldn't  be  seen, 
and  they  were  also  talking  ill  of  their  neighbors  most  of  the 
time. 

They  tried  to  save  in  everything  and  when  they  had  pork, 
they  only  put  a  little  salt  on  it.  They  thought  that  the  "  Ser- 
mon on  the  Mount "  is  no  more  than  an  outdated  almanac. 
These  people  had  plenty  of  land  but  they  didn't  till  any 
more  than  half  of  it.  When  the  beggar  came  for  something 
to  eat  they  refused  him  but  he  thought  that  he  was  better 
off  in  his  best  than  they  were  by  the  way  they  were  living. 

Whittier  says  that  a  home  is  not  like  the  one  just  de- 
scribed when  there  is  love,  happiness,  and  beauty,  and  people 
plant  flowers  and  vines.  He  also  says  that  if  people  have 
the  money  they  should  have  nice  homes  as  most  of  them  are 
now  but  once  in  a  while  a  bad  one  is  found.  At  the  last 
of  the  prelude  Whittier  calls  happiness  "  Golden  Age  "  and 
he  thinks  that  it  ought  to  come  to  every  one  living  in  this 
country, 

"  Where  whoso  wisely  wills  and  acts  may  dwell 
As  king  and  lawgiver,  in  broadacred  state, 
With  beauty,  art,  taste,  culture,  books,  to  make 
His  hour  of  leisure  richer  than  a  life 
Of  fourscore  to  barons  of  old  time." 

This  paper  shows  what  is  so  often  found  in  those  gram- 
mar grades  that  are  so  fortunate  as  to  be  encouraged  into 
thought  growth  and  thought  expression,  —  a  power  of 
thought  in  advance  of  mechanical  accuracy.  It  is  a  natural 
condition  under  the  circumstances  just  mentioned,  and  it 
is  far  safer  for  the  child's  development  than  when  the  reverse 


4O  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

is  true,  and  mechanical  processes  are  drilled  and  drilled  upon 
with  little  or  no  thought  behind  them,  and  less  possibility 
for  its  development. 

The  nature  of  the  mistakes  made  indicates  the  kind  of 
drills  needed,  probably  by  the  majority  of  the  class.  In- 
deed, almost  every  error  in  this  paper  is  suggestive  of  class 
work,  rather  than  individual  correction;  while  it  would  be 
almost  labor  lost  simply  to  write  corrections  on  the  compo- 
sition. The  errors  are  not  careless,  they  are  the  result  of 
growth,  and  they  have  deep,  underlying  reasons  which  must 
be  laid  bare  to  the  child  and  drilled  out  of  his  use.  Some 
of  them  are  indications  of  the  most  necessary  grammar 
work ;  some  show  the  needed  help  in  rhetorical  lines.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  they  are  lack  of  agreement  between  pro- 
nouns and  their  antecedents ;  lack  of  continuity  in  the  tenses 
of  the  verbs;  occasional  disagreements  of  number  between 
verbs  and  their  subjects;  punctuation  lags  behind  the  sen- 
tence structure,  for  semicolons  are  needed  in  several  places, 
and  a  number  of  constructions  with  the  comma  called  for  by 
the  sentences  are  evidently  unknown  to  the  pupil ;  the  para- 
graph sense  is  rather  weak. 

These  are  all  rather  mature  points  for  sixth  grade  pupils, 
and  they  are  undoubtedly  just  the  ones  that  are  being  pre- 
sented in  the  class  drills  as  preparatory  to  direct  instruction 
in  them  later. 

That  which  it  is  important  to  note  is  the  clearness  with 
which  the  child's  production  points  out  the  next  steps  that 
are  desirable  in  instruction.  If  this  is  a  typical  paper,  the 
class  drills  are  easily  seen. 


LITERATURE   IN    GRAMMAR   GRADES  41 

SEVENTH  YEAR  GRADE 

If,  as  the  children  mature,  an  appreciation  of  the  reading 

selected  for  school  courses  is  to  be  fostered,  extremes  must 

be  avoided : — there  must  be  neither  too  much 

of  Material  nor  to°  ^ttle '  ^  must  ^e  ne*tner  to°  difficult 

nor  too  childish.  Too  much  reading  gives 
no  opportunity  for  thought;  too  little  is  mental  starvation. 
Thoughts  that  are  too  difficult  discourage  a  child ;  those  that 
are  too  childish  disgust  him  with  class  discussions  and  drills. 
Without  the  thoughtful  consideration  that  can  be  given  a 
limited  number  of  books,  there  can  not  exist  that  apprecia- 
tion of  the  finer  literary  qualities  which  brings  aesthetic  rest 
for  the  mind,  and  which  helps  clothe  the  ever  pressing  prac- 
tical side  of  life  with  poetry  and  nobility.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  reading  is  scanty  and  lacking  in  the  elements  through 
which  intellects  grow,  the  minds  are  left  empty  and  barren 
of  all  the  great  thoughts  of  the  centuries.  Sometimes,  a 
meager  supply  of  reading  in  class  comes  from  the  desire  of 
the  teacher  to  analyze  exhaustively  every  sentence,  thereby 
limiting  the  amount  that  might  otherwise  be  mastered. 
Grammar  grade  pupils  are  not  ready  for  this  kind  of  study, 
although  it  is  true  that  they  can  be  held  to  its  performance. 
Such  a  method  is  almost  sure  to  deaden  any  love  for  the 
great  masters  in  literature.  Children  should  not  analyze 
their  writers,  they  should  revel  in  their  works.  This  must 
not  be  considered  as  meaning  that  pleasure  is  the  only  profit 
in  reading ;  but,  with  grammar  grade  pupils,  a  desire  to  read 
and  an  enjoyment  of  the  books  read  are  the  most  important 
aims  to  be  attained.  During  every  school  year  there  should 
be  enough  reading  material  handled  to  train  the  pupil's  mind 


42  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

to  a  ready  comprehension  of  a  complete  story  or  poem,  and 
to  create  the  sense  of  power  that  comes  with  rapid  acquisi- 
tion. On  the  other  hand,  the  amount  should  be  so  limited 
that  the  striking  beauties  of  every  selection  can  be  appre- 
ciated, its  great  thoughts  sounded,  its  characters  known,  and 
its  author  made  familiar  to  the  reader  through  the  general 
features  of  his  style. 

Written  exercises  should  be  short  and  frequent  rather 
than  long  and  occasional.  One  power  to  be  fostered  and 
guided  by  reading  is  the  ability  to  use  good  English.  An  ex- 
cellent way  to  stimulate  such  an  ability  is  to  write  frequently 
and  while  in  close  enough  touch  with  the  author  to  be  in- 
spired by  his  genius.  There  need  be  little  fear  of  educating 
plagiarists.  Where  there  is  much  conscious  reproduction, 
the  pupils  will  distinguish  for  themselves  between  an  orig- 
inal use  of  words  and  thoughts  and  borrowing  from  an 
author. 

The  following  is  a  resume  of  some  of  the  work  done  in  a 
seventh  grade  class : l 

Seven  works  are  read  in  class  during  this  year:  "The 
Talisman,"  "  Ivanhoe,"  "Courtship  of  Miles  Standish," 
"  Evangeline,"  "Rip  Van  Winkle,"  "Legend  of  Sleepy 
Hollow,"  and  "  The  Spy."  The  first  two  are  abridged,  the 
others  are  in  complete  form.  These  seven  do  not  seem  too 
many  books  to  read,  discuss,  study,  and  write  about  during 
the  ten  months  of  the  school  year.  "  The  Talisman  "  and 
"  Ivanhoe  "  come  in  connection  with  some  history  work  on 
the  Crusades,  which  precedes  our  history  of  the  United 
States  in  this  grade.  "  Miles  Standish  "  and  "  Evangeline  " 
are  connected  with  the  colonial  period.  "  Rip  Van  Winkle," 

1  Taught  by  Mrs.  Carrie  Berdine  Goode. 


LITERATURE   IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES  43 

"  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow  "  and  "  The  Spy "  precede  or 
accompany  the  Revolution. 

The  maximum  time  permitted  in  the  schoolroom  every 

day  for  preparation,  reading,  discussion,  and  written  work 

is  fifty  minutes.    Many  pupils,  however,  who 

take  a  pride  in  their  notebooks,  spend  much 

extra  time  upon  them.     This  does  not  interfere  in  the  least 

with  other  studies ;  it  is  simply  utilizing  leisure  time. 

Independent  preparation  must  be  insisted  upon,  for  self- 
dependence  is  a  most  necessary  lesson  to  learn.  The  pages 
or  the  topics  assigned  should  be  carefully  studied.  The 
teacher  often  gives  definite  assistance  by  putting  on  the 
board  such  directions  as  these :  Read  the  chapter  attentively ; 
be  able  to  reproduce  it  orally;  define  the  following  words, 

;  explain  the  following  lines, ;  picture  to  yourself 

certain  scenes ;  how  is  this  lesson  connected  with  the  pre- 
ceding reading? 

The  recitation  following  this  preparation  is  as  varied  as 
possible.  There  are  readings  and  discussions;  words  are 
studied;  difficult  constructions  are  explained;  all  kinds  of 
allusions  are  noted,  explained,  or  assigned  for  the  next  day ; 
a  few  rhetorical  figures,  principally  those  familiar  in  the 
lower  grades,  are  considered,  and  new  ones  are  occasionally 
taken  up,  if  prominent  in  the  reading.  The  lesson  as  pre- 
pared by  the  pupils  is  always  the  basis  for  the  recitation,  but 
it  is  far  from  being  the  limit ;  for  the  recitation  is  more  than 
a  period  for  testing ;  it  is  an  opportunity  to  teach  good  habits 
of  work,  to  show  the  desirability  of  broad  information  on 
many  subjects,  and  to  develop  the  mental  powers  of  the 
children.  The  humor  of  the  author,  his  vivid  descriptions, 
his  ability  to  make  his  characters  live  for  us,  are  all  talked 


44  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

about.  Many  questions  are  asked  to  bring  out  the  thoughts 
conveyed  by  the  lesson.  One  question  often  asked  in  some 
form  or  other  is,  "  What  has  made  this  chapter  so  interest- 
ing ?"  or,  "  Why  has  this  chapter  not  been  as  interesting  as 
the  preceding  ?"  Spirited  and  varied  are  the  answers  of  the 
youthful  critics. 

During  the  reading  in  class,  while  the  more  careful  study 
is  under  way,  pictures  of  scenes  in  the  story  are  presented. 
For  this  purpose  books  are  brought  from 
the  public  library,  magazine  articles  are  util- 
ized, and  home  libraries  become  more  familiar  to  the  chil- 
dren.   As  abridged  editions  of  "  The  Talisman  "  and  "  Ivan- 
hoe  "  are  used  in  class,  the  teacher  often  reads  some  of  the 
vivid  descriptions  in  complete  form  and  recommends  them 
to  the  pupils,  many  of  whom  read  the  longer  edition. 

The  written  work  based  on  the  literature  averages  about 
twenty  minutes  a  day  for  ten  months.     Notebooks  are  kept, 

and  every  pupil  is  responsible  for  every  sub- 
Written  . 
Work                    ject  treated,  for  every  map,  and  for  every 

drawing.  The  notebooks  are  in  every  day 
use  and  are  taken  care  of  by  the  pupils  themselves.  Ordi- 
narily a  paper  is  written  and  submitted  to  the  teacher  for 
criticism,  then  it  is  copied  if  necessary  and  put  into  the  note- 
book. Many  of  the  portfolios  thus  made  consist  entirely  of 
first  papers,  that  is,  of  uncopied  papers  which  have  required 
little  or  no  correction.  Before  writing  begins  a  clear  state- 
ment is  made  of  what  is  desired.  If  the  paper  is  to  be  a 
character  sketch,  a  short  narrative,  or  a  description,  a  short 
outline  is  placed  before  the  pupil  as  a  guide.  If  it  is  to  be 
an  outline  of  a  chapter  or  of  a  poem,  the  class  work  it  out 
either  as  a  composite  production  or  they  do  it  individually. 


LITERATURE   IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES  45 

While  the  pupils  are  writing  the  teacher  passes  among  them, 
dropping  a  hint,  suggesting  a  change,  or  making  a  correc- 
tion. After  the  papers  are  completed  one  is  selected  for  crit- 
icism by  the  class.  Portions  are  placed  upon  the  board; 
pupils  point  out  faulty  constructions  or  erroneous  ideas,  and 
reconstruct  the  passages.  This  method  is  followed  about 
once  a  month,  but  all  the  papers  are  corrected  by  the  teacher 
every  time  a  set  is  written.  The  corrections  made  in  the 
papers  by  the  teacher  relate  to  spelling,  punctuation,  gram- 
matical errors,  and  poor  style.  A  few  words  on  the  margin 
of  the  paper  often  indicate  the  nature  of  the  weakness,  as: 
"  A  poor  beginning."  "  Reconstruct  this  sentence."  "  Mean- 
ing not  clear."  "  Rewrite  the  entire  paper."  "  I  cannot 
understand  your  thought."  "  Story  too  long."  "  Too  much 
repetition." 

Some  of  the  most  interesting  lessons  of  the  year  are  those 
spent  in  determining  what  has  been  learned  about  the  author 

through  his  book ;  in  discussing  the  qualities 
the  Pupils  *kat  ma^e  certain  characters  the  hero  and 

the  heroine ;  in  recalling  incidents  similar  to 
those  mentioned  in  the  story;  in  bringing  out  the  lessons 
taught ;  in  discussing  the  inspiration  for  living  that  one  can 
gain  from  such  characters  as  Rebecca,  Ivanhoe,  Miles  Stan- 
dish,  Evangeline,  Priscilla.  There  is,  however,  a  subtle  im- 
pulse that  pupils  receive  from  the  right  kind  of  literature 
that  can  not  be  described  by  the  teacher  nor  illustrated  by 
any  visible  sign.  Many  a  pupil  may  read  an  entire  book, 
study  it  all  carefully,  write  frequent  papers  upon  it,  and  yet 
not  be  able  to  give  account  of  the  most  valuable  information 
that  has  been  imparted  by  its  pages ;  but,  if  he  has  been  en- 
thusiastic, he  has  gained  a  desire  to  read  more  works  by  tal- 


46  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

ented  authors.  Companionship  with  great  writers  means 
that  a  child's  leisure  may  be  valuably  rilled,  and  that  an  in- 
tangible, immeasurable  influence  may  have  begun  to  elevate 
his  life.  No  matter  how  many  ends  have  been  served  by  the 
child's  study  of  literature,  surely,  this  is  the  highest. 

In  literature,  as  in  the  other  studies,  a  notebook  is  kept  by 
every  pupil.  Some  of  the  papers  it  contains  are  original, 
some  are  the  result  of  class  work,  some  are  given  in  sub- 
stance by  the  teacher;  there  are  maps,  drawings,  illustra- 
tions, suggestions  from  various  sources.  The  result  is  often 
a  very  pleasing  whole,  although  failures  and  imperfections 
mar  this  phase  of  the  work  as  frequently  as  any  other,  for 
the  notebooks  are  as  purely  individual  as  any  other  part  of 
the  year's  work. 

EIGHTH  YEAR  GRADE 

During  this  last  year  of  the  grammar  grades  the  works 
read  are  principally  from  American  authors,  although  Scott 

and  Dickens  are  also  represented.     It  is  in- 
Material 

tended  to  associate  every  American  author 

read  with  the  period  of  history  in  which  he  belongs,  and  to 
present  some  of  the  formative  influences  of  his  times.  Pe- 
riod dates  are  to  be  kept  in  mind,  but  it  is  hoped  to  accom- 
plish this  by  grouping  events  around  a  central  date  rather 
than  by  sheer  memory  of  many  dates. 

Acquaintance  with  the  author  is  broadened  and  deepened 
by  reading  aloud  to  the  class  additional  poems  or  extracts 
from  stories  and  essays,  and  in  many  ways  the  teacher  tries 
to  keep  the  pupils  interested,  thoughtful  readers.  In  their 
pleasure  will  be  found  an  incentive  to  read  more;  in  their 


LITERATURE  IN   GRAMMAR   GRADES 


47 


thoughtfulness  will  be  the  means  of  growth ;  and  in  the  wise 
selection  of  books,  toward  which  they  should  be  guided 
through  the  school  acquaintance  with  authors,  will  be  the 
safety  in  their  reading. 


LANGUAGE 


CHAPTER  IV 

IMPORTANCE   OF   LANGUAGE   TRAINING   FOR   ALL 
PUPILS 

To  use  good  English  is  of  as  much  importance  to  the  busi- 
ness man  as  to  the  frequenter  of  social  functions,  but  this 

"  good  English  "  must  not  be  interpreted  as 
Language  . 

Training  meaning  simply  scrupulous  grammatical  ac- 

curacy. Such  precision  is  important  to  the 
cultured,  thoroughly  educated  man ;  but  of  far  more  impor- 
tance to  the  future  of  the  ordinary  boy  or  girl  is  the  acquire- 
ment of  an  easy  flow  of  language,  spoken  and  written,  that 
is  concise  and  accurate  in  the  choice  of  words,  terse  in  the 
utterances,  explicit  in  the  details,  truthful  and  convincing  in 
argumentation,  according  to  the  pleasure  or  need  of  the  occa- 
sion. Such  a  power  is  of  inestimable  value  in  the  home,  the 
workshop,  the  office,  in  any  professional  career.  Natural  to 
some  people,  almost  denied  to  others,  the  school  is  the  train- 
ing room  for  its  acquisition  by  all. 

In  our  city  there  is  carried  on  throughout  the  eight  years 
of  the  grammar  schools  a  definite,  systematic  plan  for  the 
elimination  of  common  errors  of  speech  and  for  the  training 
into  an  easy,  tolerably  correct,  and  ready  use  of  English  in 
written  and  spoken  form.  From  the  first  year  three  divi- 

48 


IMPORTANCE  OF   LANGUAGE  TRAINING  49 

sions  are  made  in  this  training  and  three  kinds  of  drill  are 
constantly  practiced.  These  divisions  are: — oral  language; 
technical  work,  consisting  of  applied  grammar  in  the  four 
lower  grades  and  of  drills  and  textbook  grammar  in  the  four 
higher  grades ;  composition. 

Since  to  converse  is  a  necessity  for  all,  why  should  not 
a  part  of  the  school  time  be  used  in  exercises  that  tend  defi- 
nitely toward  gaining  power  in  oral  expres- 
Language  sion?     Children  of  the  first  grade  should 

begin  to  reproduce  stories,  to  narrate  inci- 
dents of  personal  experience,  to  describe  persons,  actions, 
and  objects.  This  training,  simple  as  the  child's  own  life, 
should  accompany  his  development,  broaden  with  his  widen- 
ing horizon  of  thought  and  observation,  and  adapt  itself  to 
the  growing  power  of  expression  that  belongs  to  every  suc- 
ceeding year  of  school  life.  Oral  exercises  should  be  of 
about  the  same  grade  of  difficulty  as  the  written  ones,  and 
should  precede  when  both  are  given  on  the  same  subject. 
There  should  be  as  great  a  variety  of  topics  as  possible, 
chosen  from  the  known  elements  of  the  child's  life.  Narra- 
tion predominates  in  all  grades ;  but  there  should  also  be 
simple,  accurate  descriptions,  expressions  of  opinions,  pic- 
tures of  people.  While  talking,  the  child  should  be  very  free 
from  the  restraint  of  formal  training,  telling  freely  his 
thoughts  about  the  suggested  subject ;  later,  there  will  be  a 
special  time  for  the  consideration  of  errors  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  correct  forms. 

One  of  the  methods  to  which  children  respond  most  readily 

and  unconsciously  in  oral  language  is  the  reproduction  of 

stories.     It  is  a  useful  servant  in  all  grades,  but,  like  other 

servants,  it  should  not  be  overworked.    The  effect  of  this 

5 


5O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

exercise  is  quickly  seen  in  an  increased  vocabulary,  new  and 
easier  expressions,  greater  continuity  of  thought,  and  a  better 
conception  of  the  development  of  a  story  and  the  story  in- 
terest. Reproductions  should  not  be  permitted  by  the  teacher 
to  degenerate  into  mere  memory  recitals ;  they  should  have 
some  of  the  vim  and  skill  of  the  raconteur.  To  develop 
this  power  one  must  never  lose  sight  of  the  interest  in  the 
story,  felt  by  nearly  all  children,  and  also  of  the  natural 
desire  to  gain  power,  to  do  better  and  better  work,  to  be 
wiser  today  than  yesterday. 

In  the  primary  years  it  is  advisable  to  have  some  repro- 
ductions on  the  same  day  as  the  narrative  by  the  teacher, 
while  the  interest  is  still  keen  and  the  mem- 
Reproduction  or^  retentive-  Volunteers  are  called  for, 
perhaps ;  or,  the  teacher  selects  some  pupils 
who  are  sure  to  make  a  very  good  beginning  in  the  repro- 
duction. Gradually,  all  of  the  pupils  take  part,  and  all  of 
the  desired  portion  is  given.  The  whole  is  a  composite, 
made  up  of  many  small  offerings,  not  the  least  of  which  is 
to  be  scorned.  It  is  very  difficult  for  some  little  ones  to 
offer  anything  at  all;  moreover,  the  tiniest  piece  of  marble 
may  be  just  what  is  required  to  give  proper  form  or  the  right 
touch  of  color  to  the  finished  mosaic. 

What  to  do  with  this  oral  rendering,  this  composite  story, 
is  often  a  puzzle  to  the  teacher.  As  a  finished  product  it  is 
unsatisfactory ;  as  a  step  in  training  it  is  acceptable.  It  is, 
therefore,  as  a  part  of  the  training  that  it  must  be  consid- 
ered; here  it  serves  several  important  purposes.  It  lays 
bare  the  pupil's  faults  in  speech ;  it  suggests  to  the  class  the 
material  that  every  pupil  should  eventually  be  able  to  give 
alone  in  reproduction ;  touched  up  by  the  teacher,  all  or  part 


IMPORTANCE  OF  LANGUAGE  TRAINING  $1 

of  it  may  be  written  on  the  board,  where  it  serves  as  a  read- 
ing lesson;  later,  when  the  pupils  can  write,  it  is  copied 
from  the  board,  the  first  composition  work  possible  for  the 
youngest  pupils. 

The  errors  noticed  in  the  conversations  and  reproductions 
furnish  subject  matter  for  many  technical  drills,  which  should 

be  a  part  of  the  training  in  every  year  ;  for 
Technical  .       .  ,  \ 

accuracy  in  either  written  or  spoken  lan- 


guage can  be  gained  only  by  long  and  patient 
observation  and  drill.  Monotony  must  be  guarded  against, 
that  enemy  of  technical  language  drills.  In  the  teacher's  mind 
the  corrections  should  be  grouped  around  grammatical  prin- 
ciples, not  because  the  child  is  to  learn  grammar,  but  because 
the  teacher  will  do  more  effective  work  if  the  errors  are 
treated  systematically. 

The  past  tense  of  the  verb  is  one  of  the  topics  that  the 
teacher  should  have  in  frequently  recurring  drill.  To  be  is 
a  good  starting  place.  Were  is  an  almost  unknown  word  to 
many  children.  It  must  be  introduced  to  them,  then  there 
must  be  explained  its  use  when  speaking  of  more  than  one 
person  or  object;  many  drills  must  follow.  "You  was," 
"we  was,"  "they  was,"  are  the  torments  of  all  primary 
teachers,  and  they  are  not  unknown  to  the  ears  of  even  gram- 
mar and  high  school  teachers.  Even  young  children  can 
learn  that  these  forms  are  incorrect,  and  they  can  be  given 
the  right  word  as  a  part  of  the  conjugation  : 

I  was  we  were 

he  was  you  were 

she  was  they  were 

The  pupil  readily  accepts  the  conjugation  as  correct,  and  he 


52  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

sees  that  "  you  was "  does  not  belong  in  his  speech ;  then 
comes  the  effort  to  use  the  new  form.  To  see  and  to  do  are 
separate  matters,  but  the  doing  is  easier  when  the  reason  for 
it  stands  out  clearly.  •  At  first  the  pupils  say  the  conjugation, 
often  completing  a  sentence  with  every  form,  as : 

I  was  hurt  yesterday  We  were  hurt  yesterday 

He  was  hurt  yesterday  You  were  hurt  yesterday 

She  was  hurt  yesterday  They  were  hurt  yesterday 

These  repetitions  give  the  necessary  knowledge,  fix  the  cor- 
rect forms  in  the  memory,  and  train  the  ear  and  the  tongue. 
After  the  conjugation,  the  pupils  give  many  short  sentences, 
using  the  correct  word.  Such  drills  should  be  short,  from 
five  to  ten  minutes  long,  but  the  work  should  be  rapid  and 
unflagging. 

There  must  be  no  attempt  to  teach  technical  grammar  to 
the  little  children,  except  in  so  far  as  it  is  a  natural  and  com- 
prehensible explanation  of  errors  and  an  aid  to  their  removal. 
On  the  other  hand,  corrections  are  rarely  effective  when  con- 
fined to  incidental  suggestions  in  the  schoolroom,  because  a 
reason  for  the  change  in  speech  is  often  necessary  to  con- 
vince a  child  of  an  error  in  the  customary  form.  This  is 
natural.  A  child  from  a  careless  or  ignorant  home,  who 
never  hears  "  you  were  "  but  who  hears  the  incorrect  "  you 
was  "  fifty  times  or  more  a  day,  can  not  be  expected  to  accept 
readily  the  really  foreign  "  you  were  "  by  simply  hearing  it 
a  few  times  in  the  schoolroom  and  by  being  corrected  occa- 
sionally. Only  a  naturally  self-observant  child,  desirous  of 
progress,  will  thus  change  his  language.  It  is  useless  for 
the  teacher  to  become  discouraged;  equally  valueless  are 
scoldings  and  faultfindings.  The  child  must  be  given  a 


IMPORTANCE   OF   LANGUAGE  TRAINING  53 

desire  to  speak  properly,  and  a  reason  why  the  old  usage  is 
not  right ;  the  correct  form  must  be  clearly  understood ;  then 
must  follow  long  and  patient  drill  to  overcome  habits  of 
years  and  existing  daily  environment.  The  mind  must  be 
convinced,  desire  must  be  aroused,  the  ear  and  the  tongue 
must  be  educated,  and  the  memory  must  be  brought  into 
active  service ;  by  these  means  considerable  progress  will  be 
made.  That  so  many  children  do  acquire  a  correct  use  of 
English  must  be  the  teacher's  encouragement  in  this  some- 
what disheartening  task. 

Composition,  or  some  form  of  written  exercise,  is  an  im- 
perative part  of  language  work.     It  should  be  used  fre- 
quently in  every  year  of  school  life.     The 
Composition 

conversational  ease  and  frequent  laxity  of 

oral  exercises  can  be  turned  into  more  polished  constructions 
and  accurate  expressions  when  put  into  definite  written  form. 
To  a  first  grade  child  a  written  sentence  should  be  a  pictured 
thought  with  letters,  capitals,  and  punctuation  marks  all 
properly  arranged.  By  frequent  drills,  made  so  interesting 
that  they  do  not  deaden  the  desire  to  acquire  power  and 
knowledge,  this  acquaintance  with  a  sentence  must  pass  into 
mechanical  accuracy,  until  easy  sentences  are  written  prop- 
erly, without  that  struggle  for  correct  expression  that  so 
frequently  mars  the  pleasure  of  writing.  Pupils  like  to 
write.  Unfortunately,  injudicious  teaching  too  often  trans- 
forms the  pleasure  into  a  dreaded  task. 

Composition  follows  the  lines  of  development  observed  in 
oral  exercises,  through  narration,  description,  and  explana- 
tion, into  character  sketches,  biographical  details,  judgments, 
discussions,  debates.  The  first  step  is  copying  the  composite 
stories.  Original  reproductions  come  next.  These,  rare  in 


54  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

the  first  year,  are  permitted  more  and  more  frequently  as 
the  pupils  grow  older,  until  copying  is  used  only  for  the 
most  technical  drills.  The  two  forms  differ  radically  from 
each  other.  Copying  is  mechanical,  formal,  requiring  close 
attention  to  accuracy  in  details;  the  original  reproductions, 
while  based  upon  memory,  permit  some  use 
Writing  °^  t^le  creati°na^  formative  powers,  demand- 

ing an  absorption  into  the  thoughts  of  the 
subject  that  is  often  detrimental  to  the  mechanics  of  compo- 
sition. Manifestly,  the  methods  of  producing  the  two  forms 
of  writing,  and  the  purposes  that  they  serve  in  the  training 
of  the  child  must  differ  greatly.  The  copying  is  for  mechan- 
ical accuracy;  the  original  writing  is  for  thought  develop- 
ment and  growth. 

In  the  original  writing  the  interest  must  be  preserved. 
The  flow  of  ideas  in  the  story  telling  must  not  be  checked 
by  reiterations  about  mechanical  details;  these  will  be  at- 
tended to  at  another  time.  When  the  child  can  write  by 
himself  let  him  spend  some  unbroken  time  over  his  nar- 
rative or  description.  Let  him  express  his  thoughts  un- 
checked, just  as  a  mature  person  must  do  if  he  is  not  to  lose 
the  inspiration.  That  is,  give  the  inspiration  opportunity 
to  develop,  unhampered  by  the  fear  of  mechanical  errors. 
Separate  the  formal  from  the  formative.  Since  training 
for  habit  must  always  be  a  part  of  our  work  with  children, 
this  freedom  from  interruption  during  writing  must  not 
mean  careless  work.  The  pupil  should  try  to  write  as  cor- 
rectly as  he  can  in  this  first  draft.  He  will  be  assisted  in 
doing  so  if  correct  spelling,  capitalization,  punctuation,  are 
referred  to  by  the  teacher  before  the  writing  is  begun,  and 
the  pupil  is  encouraged  to  make  this  first  writing  as  free  as 


IMPORTANCE  OF  LANGUAGE  TRAINING  55 

possible  from  mistakes.  But  errors  will  occur.  Who  is 
absolutely  free  from  them  in  making  a  first  draft  of  a  manu- 
script? The  teacher  should  not  be  impatient  nor  the  child 
discouraged.  Put  the  papers  away  for  a  day  or  two,  as  a 
more  mature  writer  would  be  liable  to  do,  then  give  them 
back  to  their  writers  for  corrections,  and  it  will  be  surprising 
how  many  of  their  own  mistakes  the  children  will  notice. 
This  is  the  most  helpful  kind  of  correction,  for  it  is  self-help. 
There  are  two  lines  of  correction  and  criticism  to,  be 
observed  constantly : — known  errors,  or  those  on  which  there 

have  been  class  drills  which  have  made  them 
Papers  "^  familiar  to  all  the  pupils ;  unknown  errors,  or 

those  which  the  children  have  not  yet  learned 
to  recognize  as  mistakes.  The  method  of  correction  should 
be  radically  different  for  these  two  kinds  of  errors.  Pupils 
should  be  held  to  self-correction  of  the  former,  just  so  soon 
as  the  drills  have  been  sufficiently  thorough  to  warrant  thus 
throwing  the  responsibility  on  the  child;  but  they  can  only 
be  assisted  to  understanding  the  second  class  of  errors  in 
preparation  for  later  study.  Advanced  grammatical  points, 
good  sentence  structures,  unity  and  harmony  of  thought, 
composition  of  paragraphs,  can  be  subjects  for  class  criti- 
cisms, suggestion,  and  drills,  gradually  and  whenever  the 
pupils  reach  the  necessary  development  for  their  comprehen- 
sion. It  is  surprising  how  critical  children  become  about 
their  own  productions,  and  how  helpful  they  are  to  one 
another,  under  friendly,  suggestive  guidance.  This  is  the 
beginning  of  real  power.  It  is  learning  to  recognize  and  to 
correct  one's  own  weaknesses. 

Writing  papers  belongs  to  the  literary  side  of  education, 
to  the  intensive,  the  inspirational,  the  formative;  but  cor- 


56  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

recting  papers  belongs  to  the  analytical,  the  technical,  the 
accurate,  the  formal.  Correcting  papers  is  a  serious  and 
difficult  task  in  all  grades,  even  in  the  first,  for  upon  the 
success  of  the  criticism  and  the  correction  depends  the  growth 
of  the  child.  It  is  wasted  energy  for  the  teacher  to  spend 
solitary  hours  in  correcting  papers  or  in  indicating  their 
errors.  Such  efforts  rarely  result  in  more  than  correct 
papers,  while  it  is  the  child  who  is  to  be  corrected,  and  who 
must  learn  to  correct  himself.  The  only  true  help  is  in  guid- 
ing others  to  help  themselves;  and  to  wear  out  the  teacher 
over  piles  of  exercises  is  a  false  conception  of  values.  The 
teacher's  freshness,  enthusiasm,  and  vigor  should  be  for  some 
immediate  work  with  the  children ;  they  belong  in  the  school- 
room, not  in  solitary  work  at  a  desk  over  papers.  At  the 
same  time,  the  pupils  must  have  the  advantage  of  careful 
corrections  or  their  writing  will  be  in  vain.  This  can  be 
gained  in  various  ways.  Oral  class  drills  make  plain  the 
common  errors  and  the  correct  forms  that  should  replace 
them ;  class  correction  of  a  few  papers  out  of  nearly  every 
set  handed  in  shows  the  care  taken  by  some  pupils  and  the 
thoughtlessness  of  others,  it  is  also  further  drill  in  correcting 
old  errors  and  in  pointing  out  new  ones  to  be  avoided ;  hold- 
ing the  pupils  responsible,  within  reasonable  limits,  for  over- 
seeing their  own  papers  opens  the  way  for  them  into  self- 
help,  while,  incidentally,  it  relieves  the  teacher  of  much 
drudgery ;  an  occasional  exhaustive  criticism  of  a  whole  set 
of  papers  gives  exact  valuation  of  the  work  of  every  pupil. 
Constructive  criticism  leads  out  into  new  fields  of  exer- 
tion; consequently,  children  should  be 
Criticism 

helped,    stimulated,    encouraged,    into    new 

efforts.    Adversative,   severe   criticism   belongs   only  with 


IMPORTANCE  OF  LANGUAGE  TRAINING 


57 


carelessness;  it  should  be  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  the 
burden  of  careless  errors  where  it  belongs, — upon  the  pupil. 
Pupils  trained  to  these  two  kinds  of  criticism,  and  through 
them  out  into  self-criticism  and  self-correction,  write  more 
surely,  accurately,  and  willingly  than  do  those  whose  papers 
are  regularly  corrected  by  the  teacher  for  the  pupils  to 
rewrite. 


CHAPTER  V 

ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  WITH  PRIMARY 
GRADES 

FIRST  YEAR  GRADE 

The  following  thoughts  from  the  schoolroom  are  by  a 
first  grade  teacher : 1 

During  the  first  four  months  of  the  first  term  in  school 
the  time  devoted  to  language  has  for  its  special  purposes 

accustoming  the  child  to  freedom  in  express- 
First  Lessons  .  .  .  «,.,,.  . ,, 
in  Language  ln£  hlmself>  leading  out  as  rapidly  as  pos- 
sible into  the  substitution  of  correct  forms 
for  the  many  errors  that  mar  the  speech  of  the  ordinary 
child.  Ten  minutes  are  used  for  this  purpose  in  the  morn- 
ing, ten  more  in  the  afternoon.  At  first  the  pupil  is  led  to 
talk  easily  and  naturally  about  any  familiar  object,  animal, 
or  game.  He  is  making  statements,  or  "  telling  stories."  A 
tiny  narrative  is  often  the  outgrowth  of  such  a  talk.  Writ- 
ten upon  the  board,  this  pleases  the  children  and  gives  oppor- 
tunity to  impart  the  technical  information  that  a  capital  letter 
should  be  used  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  and  a  period 
at  the  end.  A  proper  noun  is  often  used,  also  requiring  a 
capital.  These  stories  furnish  material  for  lessons  in  read- 
ing and  copying ;  they  are  often  enjoyed  more  than  the  stories 
in  the  readers. 

When  "telling  stories"  with  their  punctuation  are  well 
known,  practice  begins  with  "  asking  stories,"  or  questions. 

1  Miss  Susie  M.  B.  Spooner. 

58 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  59 

The  children  are  requested  to  ask  about  something.  Some 
of  the  questions  are  written  upon  the  board,  attention  being 
called  to  the  mark  that  is  now  put  at  the  end.  Correct  punc- 
tuation does  not  come  until  the  child  discriminates  accurately 
between  the  statement  and  the  question,  and  this  is  an  accom- 
plishment that  is  acquired  more  slowly  than  is  usually  recog- 
nized by  teachers. 

Very  early  in  the  year  the  daily  time  allotment  for  lan- 
guage can  be  put  to  two  uses, — ten  minutes  for  story  telling, 
or  the  bringing  together  of  material;  and  ten  minutes  for 
formal  language  drills,  or  the  correction  of  errors  noted  in 
the  telling  of  the  stories  or  in  the  child's  conversation.  The 
two  periods  should  be  distinct,  separated  by  an  hour  or  more, 
so  that  the  pupil  does  not  get  the  idea  that  his  language  is 
under  severe  surveillance  when  he  is  talking.  Self-con- 
sciousness increases  the  number  of  mistakes  with  many 
pupils  and  often  destroys  all  spontaneity  of  narration.  Cor- 
rection of  errors  is  not  the  sole  purpose  of  the  narrations, 
and  the  children  should  not  feel  that  such  is  the  case. 

Among  the  many  errors  noted  during  the  first  four  months 

the  following  were  taken  for  special,  daily  drills :  "  I  seen," 

"  have  got,"  "  is  broke,"  "  I  goed,"  "  aint," 

Technical  „  he  ^»  „  Mewed>,,  «  drawedj»  «  keeped," 

"  brung,"  "  writed,"  "  you  was,"  "  they  is," 
"  I  are,"  "  I  runned,"  and  "  tored."  One  error  is  taken  as 
the  special  thought  for  a  week,  although  many  other  correc- 
tions are  made  during  the  same  time.  Many  correct  sen- 
tences are  given  by  the  children  in  quick,  snappy  drills. 
Some  of  these  sentences  are  written  upon  the  board  for  gen- 
eral reading  and  for  drills  in  capitalization  and  punctuation. 
By  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  month  the  pupils  are  copying 


6O  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

on  the  board  from  their  readers,  and  copying  from  the  board 
the  composite  stories  from  literature,  history, 
Language  or  nature  study.     These  are  drills  for  cor- 

rect forms.  By  the  end  of  the  seventh 
month  the  pupils  are  able  to  write  little  original  stories  occa- 
sionally, in  which  they  use  their  own  reproductions  in  place 
of  the  composites  and  try  to  remember  capitals  and  correct 
punctuation. 

The  children  often  illustrate  their  little  stories  with  their 
own  crude  drawings.  Sometimes  pictures  are  collected  from 
newspapers  or  magazines  and  placed  upon  the  teacher's  desk ; 
every  pupil  chooses  one,  names  it,  pastes  it  on  his  paper,  and 
writes  the  story  that  it  suggests  to  him.  This  is  a  satis- 
factory basis  for  a  written  exercise. 

The  above  report  is  adapted  from  the  words  of  a  teacher 
engaged  in  a  quarter  of  the  city  where  there  are  many  chil- 
dren of  foreign  parentage,  some  of  whom  hear  little  English 
except  when  in  the  schoolroom.  In  other  schools,  where 
pupils  come  from  homes  in  which  English  is  the  usual  lan- 
guage, and  where  parents  ordinarily  work  intelligently  and 
sympathetically  with  the  teacher,  more  is  accomplished  in 
the  first  year  and  different  methods  can  be  employed,  although 
the  general  work  is  the  same. 

From  the  many  exercises  found  in  a  notebook  belonging 
to  a  first  grade  child,  a  few  have  been  selected.  They  are 
uncorrected,  just  as  the  pupil  copied  them  from  the  board. 

I 
Questions  and  Answers.     (Written  in  January.) 

Did  you  go  to  the  train  ?  I  went  to  the  train.  He  went 
home. 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  6 1 

Is  your  pencil  broken  ?     My  pencil  isn't  broken. 
Is  the  ruler  broken?    The  ruler  is  not  broken. 

II 

Use  of  is  and  are. 

The  books  are  on  the  box.     The  boys  are  good  to  the  girls. 
The  rat  is  in  the  dish  of  milk.     The  little  kitten  is  fat. 
There  are  six  kittens.     Your  hands  are  on  the  book. 

Ill 

Abbreviations.     Capitals  for  proper  nouns. 
Dr.  Hammond  is  Ada's  friend.     Hiram  knows  Dr.  Cross. 
Mr.  Barr  is  our  superintendent.      Mr.  Tumelty  is  our 
janitor. 

Our  school  is  on  Washington  St.     I  live  on  Harrison  St. 

IV 

Nature  Study  Story.     (Class  Composite.) 
We  have  two  new  caterpillars. 
Etta  and  Laura  gave  them  to  us. 
See  the  black  rings  on  their  green  backs. 
One  has  yellow  spots  and  the  other  has  orange  spots  on 
the  black  rings. 

They  eat  parsley  and  anise. 

SECOND  YEAR  GRADE 

In  this  grade  there  are  continued  the  systematic  efforts 
begun  during  the  preceding  year  to  develop  power  over  lan- 
guage and  to  make  its  use  more  accurate. 
Language  There  are  conversations  on  common  objects 

of  the  pupils'  lives  ;  descriptions  of  pictures ; 
stories  suggested  by  pictures ;  reproductions  of  the  stories  in 


62  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

history  and  literature ;  little,  very  simple  descriptions  of  peo- 
ple, places,  objects ;  short  narrations. 

The  correction  of  errors  is  turned  a  little  more  along 
grammatical  lines  than  in  the  first  grades.     Not  that  the 

pupils  are  conscious  that  this  is  the  case,  for 
Drills  '  there  is  no  desire  to  teach  them  grammar; 

but  the  teacher's  work  becomes  more  syste- 
matic if  it  is  arranged  along  known  lines  of  knowledge,  and 
a  great  aid  is  given  the  comprehension  and  memory  of  the 
pupil  when  work  is  put  before  him  systematically.  The 
conjugations  continue  with  a  slowly  increasing  number  of 
verbs,  and  they  are  always  enjoyed  by  the  pupils  if  the 
teacher  is  tactful  in  handling  them.  As  a  result  of  their  use 
the  ear  is  accustomed  to  new  sounds,  and  the  tongue  becomes 
ready  with  what  were  oftentimes  previously  unknown  words. 
Pronouns  are  corrected  and  drills  are  given  if  such  care 
seems  necessary;  but  if  one  pronoun  is  corrected,  others 
should  be  associated  with  it,  so  that  there  is  shown  to  the 
child  a  series  of  related  corrections.  It  must  be  constantly 
remembered  that  persistent  drill  upon  a  few  is  better  than 
haphazard  correction  of  many.  Perhaps  only  ten  awkward, 
incorrect  expressions  can  be  eliminated  during  a  school  year ; 
but,  if  the  number  seems  small  to  an  eager  teacher,  just 
imagine  the  pupils'  conversations  without  those  ten  promi- 
nent, ever-recurring  errors.  Would  not  such  a  result  be  a 
delight  to  the  ears  of  a  language-sensitive  teacher  or  parent  ? 
Would  it  not  really  be  great  progress  ? 

The  past  tenses  of  several  verbs  are  a  part  of  the  work 

for  this  year.    These  are  generally  irregular 

ones,  but  whenever  mistakes  occur  in  regu- 
lar verbs  they  are  immediately  added  to  the  list  for  correc- 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  63 

tion.  It  is  of  advantage  to  drill  one  day  on  regular  verbs, 
separating  them  completely  from  irregular  forms.  The  ear 
is  aided  by  this  plan.  Saw  and  did  are  among  the  first  drills 
of  the  year,  although  they  also  belonged  to  first  grade  work. 
The  simple  verb,  I  did  it,  is  not  drilled  upon  at  the  same 
time  as  the  compound  form,  I  have  done  it.  These  are  two 
drills,  for  separate  days  even.  Many  children  use  the  past 
participles  of  these  two  verbs  correctly;  consequently,  the 
drills  given  are  for  learning  to  use  correctly  the  words  saw 
and  did,  comparatively  new  to  many  children.  In  this  way 
it  is  possible  to  escape  falling  into  the  solecism,  "I  have 
saw,"  an  error  often  blundered  into  through  over-zealous 
efforts  to  use  the  new  words. 

When  the  mistake  is  in  the  use  of  the  past  participle,  the 
drills  are  on  these  forms  of  the  verbs,  saying  nothing  about 
the  past  tenses,  which  are  probably  being  used  correctly. 
The  past  participles  specially  suggested  to  the  teachers  of 
this  grade  are:  written,  broken,  eaten,  bitten,  flown,  blown. 
The  past  tenses  for  special  drills  are :  ran,  did,  saw,  ate,  flew, 
blew,  dug. 

Drills  continue  in  the  use  of  the  period  and  interrogation 
mark.  The  comma  is  used  in  address,  for  attention  words, 

to  separate  words  in  a  series,  to  precede  a 
Punctuation  „  , ,  .  , . 

Word  Drills  quotation.      Several  new  abbreviations  are 

learned,  accompanied  by  the  required  period. 
Word  exercises  are  frequent,  as  in  distinguishing  between 
their  and  there ;  to  and  two ;  too  is  included  as  soon  as  used. 
Many  common  adverbs  are  taught;  as,  well,  nicely,  slowly, 
kindly.  Such  colloquialisms  as  "  busted,"  "  ketched,"  "  slung," 
and  others  taken  from  the  pupils'  vocabularies  are  discour- 
aged by  suggesting  better  forms  in  their  places.  While  it 


64  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

is  true  that  many  pupils  will  continue  to  use  these  expres- 
sions, the  leaven  of  better  language  will  be  surely  at  work. 
Drills  must  accompany  all  this  word  work;  it  is  the  only 
way  to  fix  the  points  involved. 

The  written  work  is  of  the  same  general  nature  as  the 
oral,  a  development  of  self-expression,  the  use  of  an  accurate 

and  growing  vocabulary,  the  formation  of 
Composition 

compact  sentences  instead  of  loosely  con- 
nected clauses.  Little  letters  to  some  friend  or  relative  give 
opportunity  to  teach  proper  letter  forms.  Reproductions  are 
frequent,  both  the  composite,  copied  from  the  board  so  that 
capitalization,  punctuation,  and  spelling  shall  be  correct; 
and  the  original  reproduction,  written  after  careful  oral 
lessons  over  the  same  material. 

Simple  as  these  individual  versions  may  seem  to  a  mature 
mind,  for  the  child  they  present  difficulties  and  responsibili- 
ties. Spelling  and  capitalization  become  more  formidable  if 
the  writer  is  obliged  to  think  for  himself,  even  if  he  helped 
decide  about  every  word  of  the  composite  when  the  teacher 
was  writing  it  on  the  board.  Moreover,  there  is  the  neces- 
sity of  thinking  out  the  story,  remembering  the  details  and 
putting  them  into  proper  order. 

Such  "  original "  composition  should  not  be  given  as  busy 
work.  It  should  be  under  the  careful  supervision  of  the 
teacher.  In  this  way  mistakes  can  be  avoided,  infinitely 
preferable  to  correcting  them  after  they  are  made.  To  get 
the  right  form  into  the  mind  first  is  worth  much  in  the  train- 
ing of  a  child  and  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge.  The 
pupils  must  be  at  liberty  to  ask  about  any  doubtful  point  in 
spelling,  capitalization,  punctuation,  choice  of  words,  form  of 
sentence,  general  arrangement.  They  should  be  encouraged 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  65 

and  trained  to  recognize  their  weaknesses  and  uncertainties 
and  to  ask  for  information  rather  than  to  make  a  mistake. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  must  not  be  permitted  to  become 
dependent.  That  which  they  have  been  taught  thoroughly 
they  should  be  expected  to  know  and  to  use  without  assist- 
ance. Pupils  respond  quickly  and  happily  to  such  self- 
responsibilities  when  they  are  firmly  but  kindly  enforced. 
Just  before  beginning  a  paper  have  the  children  recall  points 
for  which  all  must  be  on  the  watch  during  the  writing.  This 
assists  in  remembering  what  has  been  learned  and  in  putting 
it  into  practice  in  a  new  paper.  After  such  a  reminder  many 
a  pupil  will  produce  a  creditable  paper  instead  of  a  faulty, 
unacceptable  exercise.  This  is  not  direct  assistance;  it  is 
one  of  the  steps  in  training  the  child's  mind  to  be  observant. 
There  follow  three  written  verb  drills  from  second  grade 
pupils. 

I 

has    1 
See  saw  seeing  have  f-     seen 

had  J 

See,  see,  the  dog  is  running  away. 
I  saw  an  automobile  up  town  yesterday. 
I  have  seen  Eva  today. 

II 

has    -} 
Write        wrote        writing        have  f-     written 

had  J 

Our  teacher  is  writing. 
Our  teacher  wrote  something  on  the  board. 
Billy  has  written  his  lesson  on  the  board. 
Gladys,  the  teacher  has  written  a  sentence. 
6 


66  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

III 

has   ] 
Do  did  doing  have  f     done 

had  J 
My  work  is  done. 

We  have  done  the  drawing. 

Who  did  it?    The  teacher  did  it  yesterday. 

Did  the  janitor  do  the  cleaning? 

You  did  the  drawing  but  mother  has  done  the  painting. 

THIRD  YEAR  GRADE 

Reproductions  are  continued,  the  pupils  telling  the  stories 
that  have  been  told  or  read  by  the  teacher.     Narrations  are 
based  on  some  topic  chosen  from  the  life  of 

Language 


the  pupil.    Descriptions,  simple  but  accurate, 


are  given  of  what  may  be  readily  seen  or 
heard  by  the  child.  Sentence  structure  is  carefully  watched 
to  prevent  the  repetition  of  loose  connectives.  A  knowledge 
of  how  to  form  compact  sentences  must  be  gained  from  the 
drill  periods,  but  in  the  time  for  oral  language  the  child 
should  be  held  to  practicing  what  he  has  learned.  The  pupils 
are  being  led  to  self-observation  in  sentence  making,  con- 
tinuity of  thought,  and  other  accuracies  and  niceties  of  lan- 
guage. Until  they  learn  to  criticise  themselves  there  will  be 
no  sound  basis  for  progress.  This  they  can  soon  learn  to 
do  concerning  the  points  which  are  known,  and  it  is  the  work 
of  the  drill  period  to  make  known  certain  definite  correc- 
tions for  the  child  to  incorporate  into  his  language. 

In  the  technical  work,  the  year  is  begun  with  a  careful 

review  of  the  points  that  have  been  drilled 

Verbs  A  , 

on  in  the  preceding  grades.    A  number  of 

new    abbreviations    are    learned.     Quotation    marks    are 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  6/ 

used  in  many  simple  sentences.  The  principal  parts  of 
a  number  of  the  commonly  used  verbs  are  learned,  as: 
break,  go,  see,  sit,  eat,  tell,  fall,  give,  come,  take,  sing, 
begin,  draw,  forget,  speak,  drive,  write,  tear,  let,  (to  correct 
the  use  of  "  leave  "  in  the  sense  of  permit),  know,  blow,  do, 
shine.  The  pupils  learn  the  four  principal  forms  of  the  verb, 
as:  break,  broke,  breaking,  broken.  They  are  written  upon 
the  board,  where  a  list  soon  grows,  with  distinct  columns. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  this  is  simply  a  method  to  cor- 
rect speech,  not  a  grammatical  learning  of  conjugations ; 
consequently,  if  the  pupils  speak  of  the  "  second  form,"  the 
"fourth  form"  of  the  "word,"  there  is  no  need  to  feel 
troubled.  The  aim  is  to  learn  to  use  these  forms,  and  the 
arrangement  in  columns  helps  a  child  greatly  in  remember- 
ing which  form  is  used  without  a  "  helping  word,"  which  one 
requires  such  assistance.  Incidentally,  much  grammar  is  ab- 
sorbed, even  names  of  forms  coming  easily  to  the  lips  of 
some  of  the  pupils.  Sentence  making,  in  which  the  various 
forms  of  the  verbs  are  used,  is  an  important  and  frequent 
part  of  this  drill.  So  also  is  the  simple  saying  of  the  four 
forms ;  calling  quickly  for  the  fourth  form,  the  third  form. 

A  beginning  is  made  in  this  grade  to  teach  pronouns  sys- 
tematically.    The  idea  of  a  subject  of  a  sentence  is  developed 

in  order  to  learn  to  use  I,  he,  she,  correctly. 
Pronouns 

No  attempt  is  made  to  teach  the  grammar 

of  these  subjects,  for  third  grade  children  are  being  dealt 
with ;  but  even  these  little  folks  quickly  get  the  subject  sense 
in  a  sentence.  At  this  stage  of  the  work  little  or  nothing  is 
said  of  me,  him,  her,  as  these  forms  are  probably  being  used 
correctly. 
The  number  of  common  abverbs  in  the  vocabularies  of  the 


68  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

children  can  be  greatly  increased  in  this  grade  by  combining 

them  with  the  verbs  in  the  verb  drills,  thus 

developing  in  the  child's  mind  that  idea  of 

relation  between  verbs  and  abverbs  that  is  imperative  to  the 

correct  use  of  the  latter.     In  these  drills  care  is  taken  to 

avoid  predicate  adjectives,  as,  he  looks  neat;  they  would  be 

very  confusing  to  these  children. 

The  use  of  relative  pronouns  is  taught  by  introducing  them 
into  the  vocabularies  of  the  children  for  connectives  in  the 
sentence  building  exercises.    If  "and,"  "and," 

"  and>"  "  but>"  "  but'"  "  but'"  are  taken  away 
from  the  children,  something  must  be  given 

in  their  places.  Relative  pronouns,  conjunctive  adverbs,  and 
well-chosen  conjunctions  are  given,  and  the  children  grad- 
ually pass  into  the  use  of  fairly  well-formed  complex  sen- 
tences, without,  however,  being  troubled  about  their  gram- 
matical analyses.  If  relative  pronouns  are  grouped  together, 
if  on  certain  days  a  list  of  conjunctive  adverbs  is  placed  upon 
the  board  for  use  in  sentence  building,  if  the  teacher  is  sys- 
tematic in  the  presentation  of  this  material,  the  children  will, 
however,  acquire  their  knowledge  systematically,  and  later 
grammatical  work  is  made  easier  and  more  practical.  Com- 
bining sentences  by  these  aids  permits  considerable  individ- 
uality and  is  fascinating  to  the  pupils.  A  list  of  relative 
pronouns  and  two  or  three  short  sentences  are  put  upon  the 
board : 

who        I  have  a  book.     I  am  reading  from  the  book, 
whom     Then  the  children  combine:  I  have  a  book  from 
which     which  I  am  reading.     I  am  reading  from  the  book 
what      which  I  have.     Have  you  the  book  from  which  I 
that       was  reading? 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN    LANGUAGE 


69 


Composition 


After  a  little  help  lists  of  relative  pronouns  written  upon  the 
board  are  used  readily  and  quickly  by  the  pupils.  Parti- 
ciples are  made  a  part  of  the  child's  vocabulary  by  the  same 
method.  Thus  complex  sentences  become  familiar  to  the 
children  and  the  sentence  structures  are  steadily  improved. 

Some  kind  of  composition  work  is  given  every  day.  Nar- 
ration predominates,  interspersed  with  frequent  descriptions. 
Correction  of  the  papers  is  carried  along  on 
two  lines :  self-correction  by  the  pupils,  after 
the  lapse  of  a  day  or  two,  of  errors  that  have  been  subjects 
of  drills ;  correction  by  the  teacher  of  errors  that  come  from 
imperfect  knowledge,  those  that  will  in  later  months  become 
subjects  of  drills.  It  is  not  necessary  to  correct  all  papers. 
Experience  gained  by  frequent  writing  will  soon  be  manifest 
in  self-correction  or  in  avoidance  of  errors,  especially  if, 
before  beginning  to  write,  attention  is  called  to  the  common 
mistakes  so  that  they  shall  not  appear  in  the  papers. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  THIRD  GRADE  PAPERS 

I 

Questions  and  Answers 

A  question  is  a  sentence  that  asks  something.  A  question 
is  followed  by  a  question  mark.  Lucy,  are  you  going  home 
now? 

II 

Definitions 

A  statement  is  a  sentence  that  tells  something.  I  have 
a  pen  at  home. 

An  initial  is  the  first  letter  in  a  name.  May  Agnes  Tier- 
ney,  M.  A,  T, 


7O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

An  apostrophe  shows  ownership  and  omission.  Mary's 
coat  is  on  the  rack.  Don't  you  like  to  go  up  town? 

Ill 

Special  Words  and  Homonyms 

Will  you  pare  the  potatoes?  My  pencil  is  broken.  She 
is  going  to  my  house.  Let  me  see  it  (not  "  leave  me,"  etc.). 
Mamie  writes  well  (not  "  good  ").  Their  yard  was  dirty. 

IV 

Break                broke                breaking  broken 

Tell                    told                    telling  told 

Go                     went                  going  gone 
I  have  broken  my  cup  and  vase.     I  told  you  the  answer. 

She  has  gone  away.     I  have  given  you  some  candy.     My 
pen  is  broken. 

FOURTH  YEAR  GRADE 

In  the  oral  training  reproductions,  descriptions,  and  nar- 
rations are  continued,  with  careful  attention  to  vocabulary 
building  and  to  sentence  structure.     Personal 
Lan  uaee  criticisms  by  the  listening  pupils  are  encour- 

aged so  long  as  they  are  helpful  and  sym- 
pathetic, but  they  are  checked  if  they  become  unkind,  sar- 
castic, or  personal.  The  children  are  still  so  young,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  very  easy  to  guide  these  class  corrections  along 
friendly,  helpful  lines,  thus  making  them  sources  of  great 
assistance  and  enthusiasm.  In  the  technical  work  abbrevia- 
tions are  continued,  and  quotations,  simple  and  broken,  are 
frequently  drilled  upon.  Capitalization  and  punctuation 
progress  by  the  addition  of  new  rules  as  demanded  by  the 


ORAL   AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  7 1 

work  and  development  of  the  pupils.  Constant  effort  is 
made  to  bring  the  children  into  mechanical  ease  and  accu- 
racy in  the  use  of  the  rules  already  learned. 

Many  adjectives,  appropriate  for  nouns  in  common  use,  are 
suggested  and  used.  Gradually,  these  displace  those  that 

have  been  used  loosely  or  incorrectly.     Chil- 
Adjectives 

dren  need  this  drill  upon  adjectives,  as  is 

indicated  by  the  exaggeration  and  inaccuracy  in  their  use 
heard  on  all  sides.  The  comparison  of  all  the  adjectives  in 
use  is  learned,  adding  materially  to  the  vocabularies.  Plurals 
of  all  nouns  used  by  the  children  are  taught.  The  posses- 
sive singulars  are  given,  but  the  possessive  plurals  are  left 
for  fifth  grades  unless  the  pupils  show  themselves  especially 
proficient  in  acquiring  them. 

The  principal  parts  of  all  the  verbs  learned  in  the  third 
grade  are  reviewed,  and  as  many  more  are  taken  as  the  chil- 
dren  can  master.  The  individual  teacher 
must  be  the  guide  here,  for  classes  differ 
greatly  in  language  development  and  abilities.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  of  those  considered  most  important  for  this 
year's  drills:  shall  and  should,  distinguished  from  will  and 
would;  may  and  might,  distinguished  from  can  and  could; 
lie  and  lay;  ride,  set,  hear,  lead,  sink,  drink,  swim,  hide, 
show,  shoe,  throw,  rise,  know,  spring,  slide,  write,  shake, 
drive,  grow,  choose.  As  in  the  third  grade,  the  conjugation 
of  the  present  and  the  past  tenses  is  learned  as  are  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  all  the  verbs  studied.  Sentence  drill  with  the 
verbs  is  the  important  part  of  the  work. 

A  sufficient  study  is  made  of  the  sentence  to  see  clearly 
the  subject,  predicate,  and  object.  Clauses  are  used,  as  in  the 


72  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

third  grade,  by  combining  short,  simple  sentences  by  means 
of  relative  pronouns,  participles,  and  conjunctive  abverbs. 
Sentence  Phrases  are  formed  with  prepositions,  par- 

Structure  ticiples,     and     infinitives.       Phrases     and 

clauses  are  used  both  as  adjective  and  as  adverbial  modi- 
fiers. The  teacher  speaks  of  the  different  sentences  as  sim- 
ple, complex,  and  compound;  the  phrase  and  the  clause  are 
given  their  proper  names,  but  no  attempt  is  made  to  have 
the  children  discriminate.  If  they  learn  to  distinguish  one 
from  the  other  accurately  much  has  been  gained ;  but  there 
is  no  effort  to  teach  these  grammatical  points,  for  all  that  is 
desired  is  that  the  pupils  shall  be  using  naturally  and  cor- 
rectly all  three  forms  of  the  sentence.  Whatever  more  is 
learned  about  them  by  fourth  grade  pupils  is  pure  gain.  Of 
course,  in  putting  clauses  together,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
suggest  which  relative  pronoun  to  use,  or  which  connective, 
but  this  is  exactly  what  the  drills  are  for.  Lists  are  fre- 
quently written  upon  the  board,  from  which  the  pupils  select 
words  that  will  unite  smoothly  the  short,  simple  sentences 
into  one  complex  whole;  but  this  should  not  be  done  until 
the  pupils  have  been  well  drilled  on  the  individual  words 
that  make  up  the  list. 

In  all  this  applied  grammar  care  must  be  exercised  con- 
stantly or  the  teacher  will  be  trying  to  teach  technical  gram- 
mar.    Such  a  mistake  would  be  fatal  to  the 
Grammar  rea^   PurP°se-     The   children   may   and   do 

absorb  much  grammar,  but  to  hold  them, 
down  to  its  acquirement  would  seem  useless  to  them, 
would  divert  the  attention  of  pupil  and  teacher  from  the  real 
object,  and  would  probably  create  intense  distaste  for  the 
work.  The  purpose  is  to  improve  the  ordinary  speech  of 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  73 

the  child  by  many  suggestions  and  corrections,  which  are 
made  far  more  effective  by  being  grouped  around  simple, 
elementary  principles  of  grammar.  The  children  see  rea- 
sons for  the  corrections;  several  of  a  kind  are  grouped 
together,  thus  forming  a  basis  for  a  rule  ;  systematic  arrange- 
ment leads  to  an  assurance  through  which  the  children  are 
often  guided  into  self-help,  where  incidental  corrections 
would  have  left  them  helpless  on  generalizing  out  into  new 
corrections.  The  pupils  are  not  retarded  in  this  progress  if 
the  teacher  uses  proper  grammatical  terms,  adverb,  noun, 
pronoun,  verb,  adjective,  phrase,  clause,  sentence.  Indeed, 
it  is  a  help  rather  than  a  detriment  in  the  work  itself  and 
in  the  preparation  for  coming  years. 

In  the  composition  work  original  writing  is  more  clearly 
differentiated   from   imitative  than  heretofore.     The  latter 

includes  reproductions,  copying,  dictations, 
Composition  . 

illustrations  given  by  the  teacher  either  orally 

or  by  reading.  Its  purpose  is  well  denned  in  the  mind  of 
the  teacher ;  it  is  to  aid  in  developing  ease  and  grace  of  style, 
accuracy  in  the  mechanics  of  writing,  and  improvement  of 
the  vocabulary.  Reading  a  choice  description  or  a  vivid  nar- 
ration from  some  good  writer  and  commenting  a  little  on 
how  the  effect  was  produced  is  an  incentive  to  personal 
efforts  in  similar  lines.  Original  writing  is  the  purpose  of 
a  course  in  composition,  but  the  steps  leading  into  it  are 
made  easier  and  quicker  for  all,  while  the  road  itself  is 
opened  to  many,  if  these  imitative  steps  precede  attempts  at 
originality.  A  desire  for  individuality  can  be  fostered  by 
leading  the  children  to  enjoy  the  most  original  papers  and 
by  seeing  the  weakness  when  someone  accepts  another's 
thought  in  place  of  his  own.  Papers  should  be  frequent, 


74  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

but  short,  and  subjects  should  be  so  definite  that  pupils  know 
just  what  they  are  expected  to  do. 

The  mechanical  divisions  of  an  article  are  the  sentence 
and  the  paragraph.  A  knowledge  of  each  should  be  culti- 
vated in  the  fourth  grade.  The  possibility  of  expanding  and 
contracting  sentences  has  already  been  suggested  to  the  chil- 
dren by  third  grade  work  on  combination  of  several  short 
sentences  into  one  long  one.  Still  more  can  be  done  in  the 
fourth  grade  by  changing  adjectives  and  adverbs  into  phrases 
and  clauses,  or  vice  versa;  or  by  using  participles,  relative 
pronouns,  and  subordinating  conjunctions.  The  weak  sen- 
tence structure,  so  noticeable  in  the  speaking  and  writing 
by  children,  is  more  frequently  ignorance  of  better  forms 
that  might  be  used  than  carelessness  or  disinclination  to 
employ  more  elegant  constructions.  There  should  be  special 
thought  given  to  sentence  structure.  The  children  must  be 
guided  for  some  time  along  one  line  of  progress,  as  the  use 
of  relative  pronouns ;  then  another  must  be  taken  up,  as 
dependent  adverbial  clauses ;  then  still  another  must  be  made 
familiar ;  and  all  the  time  that  which  was  first  learned  must 
not  be  neglected.  While  working  over  any  special  phase, 
have  the  pupils  correct  their  own  papers  in  that  one  respect, 
so  that  they  will  grow  observant. 

The  sense  of  the  paragraph  can  be  more  easily  developed 
by  having  the  pupils  write  two  or  three  paragraphs  on  a 
subject,  than  by  calling  for  one.  Selection  and  division  of 
material  is  imperative  to  the  formation  of  paragraphs ;  writ- 
ing only  one  gives  no  chance  for  this  thoughtfulness.  The 
teacher  must  not  become  discouraged  in  showing  again  and 
again  the  proper  use  of  the  sentence  and  paragraph.  Both 
are  very  difficult,  even  for  older  pupils,  and  these  younger 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  75 

ones  must  move  slowly  in  the  comprehension  of  what  each 
means.  The  pupils  are  not  yet  mature  enough  to  discrimi- 
nate very  accurately,  but  they  are  learning  to  use  both  cor- 
rectly. 

The  pupils  should  learn  how  to  correct  and  improve  their 
own  papers.  Sentence  and  paragraph  structure,  especially 

the  former,  choice  of  words,  the  possibility 
Correcting  £  ...  ,  ,  , 

Papers  °*  expanding  and  contracting  thoughts,  con- 

tinuity, harmony  in  the  material  chosen,  are 
all  matters  for  criticism.  Pleasant  beginnings  and  compre- 
hensive conclusions  should  be  discussed  in  class;  witty  and 
earnest  papers  should  be  read  aloud  for  all  to  enjoy  and 
appreciate;  the  general  style  of  a  paper  should  be  analyzed 
occasionally,  in  a  manner  adapted  to  the  age  of  the  pupils. 
These  efforts  at  composition  should  be  frequently  criticised, 
every  few  days,  but  the  general  impression  left  with  the 
pupils  must  be  that  of  guidance  and  inspiration,  not  of  dis- 
couragement. Unfriendly  attacks  upon  the  creative  powers 
used  in  composition  tend  to  make  sensitive  pupils  afraid  of 
further  writing,  and  careless  pupils  antagonistic  toward  all 
composition.  Criticism,  especially  with  such  young  children, 
should  be  constructive,  not  destructive. 

Pupils  complete  primary  work  with  the  fourth  grade. 
There  has  been  no  textbook  preparation  in  formal  grammar, 
but  by  systematic  application  of  some  leading  principles 
during  the  primary  years,  the  children  have  passed  the  first 
difficulties  of  technical  grammar  and  have  made  a  fair  begin- 
ning in  composition.  Five  of  the  parts  of  speech,  noun, 
pronoun,  adjective,  adverb,  and  verb  are  well  known  by  use, 
and  most  of  the  children  are  talking  about  them  by  their 
proper  names  and  recognizing  them  readily  in  their  ordinary 


/  METHODS   IN    TEACHING 

uses.  Verbs  are  conjugated  in  the  indicative  mode,  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  the  common  verbs  are  known.  Descriptive 
adjectives  are  compared  and  used.  Many  adverbs  are  used 
with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy,  and  most  of  them  can  also 
be  compared  and  used  in  the  forms  thus  presented.  Sin- 
gulars and  plurals  of  nouns  in  ordinary  use  have  been  learned, 
and  their  possessive  cases,  both  singular  and  plural,  are  in 
constant  and  generally  correct  use.  The  nominative  and 
objective  forms  of  the  personal  pronouns  are  known  and  used 
correctly  by  the  majority  of  pupils  who  will  pass  out  of  the 
grade  at  the  end  of  the  year.  Several  relative  pronouns  are 
in  use,  although  the  pupils  know  but  little  about  them  tech- 
nically, probably  not  even  their  name.  There  is  also  some 
acquaintance  with  prepositions  and  conjunctions ;  with  the 
former  in  connection  with  the  work  on  pronouns ;  and  with 
the  latter  through  the  efforts  to  improve  sentence  structures. 
Adjective  and  adverbial  clauses  are  in  frequent  use,  with  a 
very  clear  idea  that  they  belong  to  the  noun  or  the  verb 
modified,  but  there  is  no  technical  knowledge  whatever 
about  them. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  FOURTH  GRADE  PAPERS 

I 

Comparison  of  Adjectives 

bad  worse       worst  near         nearer      nearest 

good        better       best  many       more        most 

late  later         latest  sweet       sweeter    sweetest 

II 

Correction  of  Errors  noticed  by  Pupils 
"  I  saw  a  wagon  full  with  men."     I  saw  a  wagon  full 
of  men. 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE 


77 


"I  will  haf  to  close  the  window/'"  I  will  have  to  close 
the  window. 

"  After  a  while  some  boys  come  along  in  a  wagon."  After 
a  while  some  boys  came  along  in  a  wagon. 

"One  man  had  a  small  popular  tree  in  a  flower-pot  and 
the  tree  was  about  two  feet  tall."  One  man  had  a  small 
poplar  tree  about  two  feet  tall  in  a  flower-pot. 

"  It  aint  planted."     It  isn't  planted. 

"  I  aint  going."     I  am  not  going.     I'm  not  going. 

"  I  seen  her  go  by."     I  saw  her  go  by. 


CHAPTER  VI 

ORAL  AND  WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  WITH  GRAMMAR 
GRADES 

FIFTH  YEAR  GRADE 

After  a  brief  but  careful  review  of  the  work  of  the  pre- 
ceding years  in  punctuation,  the  children  are  held  respon- 
sible  for  what  they  have  learned.     They 
Punctuation  ,         -         .  ,  1^,1 

must  use  what  they  have  been  taught,  the 

teacher  does  not  stand  ready  to  put  in  whatever  is  forgotten 
by  the  child.  Several  new  rules  for  the  comma  are  now 
demanded  by  longer  and  more  involved  sentences,  some 
of  which  also  call  for  one  or  two  of  the  simpler  uses  of  the 
semicolon;  even  the  colon  is  needed  by  a  few  pupils. 
These  should  all  be  given  as  needed,  accompanied  always 
by  an  abundance  of  illustrative  drill.  Although  but  few 
pupils  are  writing  sentences  requiring  semicolons  and  colons, 
the  needed  rules  for  their  use  should  be  given  to  avoid 
incorrect  punctuation  by  those  few ;  other  writers  may  also 
be  led  into  strengthening  their  sentence  structures  in  order 
to  employ  the  new  marks  after  their  uses  have  been  ex- 
plained. Wrong  ideas  of  the  relation  between  the  parts  of 
a  sentence  may  be  imbibed  if  these  rules  are  not  given.  It 
is  still  necessary  to  drill  on  the  use  of  quotation  marks,  the 
punctuation  of  quotations,  and  the  possessives  of  nouns  in 
both  singular  and  plural.  Their  mastery  is  not  easy,  and, 
although  they  have  been  in  use  since  the  first  grade,  new 
conditions  spring  up,  some  of  which  seem  stranger  to  the 

78 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  /9 

children  than  at  first  thought  appears  possible  to  teacher  or 
parent.  One  must  be  in  close  touch  with  the  workings  of 
these  young  minds  to  comprehend  the  nature  and  reality  of 
their  difficulties. 

The  correction  of  vulgarisms  and  common  errors  must  be 

carefully  continued.     The  child's  own  pride  in  ready  and 

cultured  language  is  coming  more  and  more 

Grammar  tO  the  hdp  °f  the  teacher>*  although,  at  the 

same  time,  there  has  to  be  overcome  the 
feeling  that  is  peculiarly  strong  in  these  middle  grades,  that 
the  school,  in  some  occult  way,  is  not  life,  real  life,  and  that 
its  lessons  are  for  the  schoolroom  only,  to  be  forgotten  as 
soon  as  the  outside  air  is  reached.  To  counteract  this  feel- 
ing, it  is  well  to  keep  in  touch  with  some  form  of  everyday 
life  that  stands  close  to  the  pupil.  Show  what  carefully 
selected  language  is  used  by  some  persons,  known  and 
respected  by  the  pupils ;  read  an  extract  from  a  speaker  who 
will  appeal  to  them,  calling  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
verbs  are  properly  used,  that  pronouns  are  in  their  right 
cases ;  various  means  can  be  employed  to  impress  upon  the 
children  that  good  language,  far  from  being  a  schoolroom 
bug-a-boo,  is  a  recognized  necessity  of  cultured  life. 

The  grammatical  drills  are  beginning  to  take  on  a  more 
formal  nature.    A  conjugation  is  called  a  conjugation;  the 

indicative  mode  is  thoroughly  learned  by  all ; 
Technical  in.*  -n  •  • 

Grammar  distinction   between   shall   and   will   is   im- 

pressed, although  a  teacher  must  not  be 
flattered  with  the  thought  that  it  will  be  definitely  learned; 
present  and  past  participles  are  used  in  phrases  as  adjectives, 
adverbs,  nouns,  and  in  their  verbal  significations,  in  order 
to  show  their  flexibility.  While  the  technical  element  is 


8O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

growing  in  these  presentations,  they  should  still  be  con- 
sidered as  language  rather  than  grammar ;  but  if  pupils  see 
that  the  third  and  fourth  forms  of  verbs  have  a  variety  of 
uses,  future  grammar  is  simplified.  Adjectives  and  adverbs 
are  frequently  used  in  drills,  and  their  comparisons  should 
now  be  well  understood,  both  with  the  use  of  er  and  est  and 
of  the  words  more  and  most.  Nouns  should  be  readily 
recognized,  and  their  plurals  formed.  Pronouns  should  be 
declined,  in  order  to  ensure  their  correct  use.  Frequent  oral 
drill,  in  which  every  pupil  of  the  class  is  involved,  must  be 
given  the  nominative  and  objective  cases.  This  includes  a 
fairly  clear  idea  of  prepositions  and  of  the  subject  and  ob- 
ject. The  use  of  who  for  persons  and  of  which  and  that 
for  animals  and  inanimate  things  should  be  taught.  The 
teacher  must  be  constantly  on  guard  not  to  be  drawn  off  too 
far  into  formal  grammar ;  the  pupils  are  still  immature,  and 
practice,  or  application,  should  far  exceed  theory  or  memor- 
izing. The  grammar  should  be  presented,  for  the  pupils 
are  old  enough  to  understand  many  of  its  simpler  principles, 
but  there  is  no  great  loss,  as  yet,  if  the  technical  reason  for 
a  correction  or  for  a  drill  is  forgotten,  provided  the  appli- 
cation is  remembered.  The  explanation  has  served  its  pur- 
pose in  clarifying  the  correction;  it  will  be  remembered  by 
many  pupils,  and  wholly  forgotten  by  only  a  few. 

Composition   progresses   constantly.     To   write   well,   a 
pupil  must  be  permitted  to  enjoy  creative  work ;  individuality 

must  have  expression  or  writing  will  be  a 
Composition  , 

bore.      Encouragement   and   growth   mean 

pleasure  to  teacher  and  pupil ;  discouragement  opens  up  a 
cheerless  prospect  for  both.  Before  beginning  to  write  have 
the  pupils  tell  what  must  be  remembered  in  mechanical 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  8 1 

lines;  then  let  the  writing  go  on  freely,  without  every 
thought  being  hampered  by  the  idea  that  the  critical  teacher 
is  peering  over  the  shoulder,  or  that  the  paper  "  wont  pass  " 
if  the  periods  and  spelling  are  not  correct.  Even  a  mature 
writer  of  ability,  buried  in  the  inspiration  and  enjoyment 
of  his  creation,  may  make  technical  mistakes  that  he  will 
stare  at  later  in  astonishment ;  but  he  will  correct  every  page 
of  his  manuscript  with  the  utmost  care  before  permitting  it 
to  go  to  the  public.  Give  the  child  an  equal  freedom  of 
creation,  teach  him  an  equal  patience  in  correcting. 

Subject  matter  is  comparatively  easy  to  find,  for  it  is 
the  handling  of  the  material  that  is  of  importance.  A  paint- 
ing from  a  master's  hand  may  be  only  a  weary  laborer  halt- 
ing for  a  prayer  in  obedience  to  the  call  of  the  bell  in  his 
village  church.  The  canvas  may  be  small.  It  is  not  the 
subject,  it  is  not  the  size,  that  makes  the  painting  immortal ; 
it  is  the  treatment.  The  subject  for  a  child's  composition 
must  be  as  simple  as  are  the  experiences  of  that  child.  His 
training  is  in  expression.  A  wandering  bee,  buzzing  in  the 
window;  a  bird,  twittering  over  the  spring  nest;  a  dog, 
coaxing  and  fawning  for  his  evening  meal;  a  horse,  cross 
and  rebellious  at  being  cinched  up  under  the  saddle, — is 
there  any  end  to  the  thoughts  about  which  a  child  will  talk 
or  write?  Give  ideas,  not  subjects.  The  former  inspire,  the 
latter  deaden.  Do  not  trouble  about  the  subject,  a  paper 
can  be  named  after  it  is  written. 

Then  there  are  real  and  imaginary  letters,  narrations,  de- 
scriptions, reproductions,  and  simple  character  sketches. 
Children  readily  express  personal  opinions  about  poems  and 
stories.  All  papers  should  be  short,  sometimes  a  few  lines 
will  be  all  that  can  be  given.  The  clothing  of  the  thought 
7 


82    .  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

in  many  words  should  be  carefully  guarded  against,  lest 
mere  verbiage  takes  a  hold  upon  the  writer.  The  study  of 
figures  of  speech  in  the  literature  of  the  year  will  probably 
lead  to  some  embellishment  of  the  pupils'  papers.  While 
these  efforts  should  meet  with  encouragement,  they  also  need 
guidance,  so  that  a  florid,  unnatural  style  is  not  developed. 

The  study  of  the  sentence  and  the  paragraph  can  not  be 
relaxed,  for  the  power  of  the  children  over  them  is  weak 
and  vacillating.  Study  the  effect  produced  by  long  and 
short  sentences;  illustrate  changes  in  emphasis  resultant 
upon  transposition  of  words,  phrases,  clauses.  We  are  deal- 
ing with  children,  and  only  childish  results  can  be  expected ; 
but  there  should  be  a  steady,  even  if  slow,  growth  in  power 
over  written  expression. 

Fifth  grade  pupils  need  to  know  the  subject,  predicate, 
and  object  of  a  sentence  in  order  to  discriminate  in  the  use 
of  nominative  and  objective  cases.  A  faint  conception  of  these 
features  of  a  sentence  begins  in  the  more  favored  fourth 
grades;  pupils  of  fifth  grades,  even  where  the  language 
difficulties  are  greatest,  make  this  knowledge  clearer,  not 
for  grammatical  purposes,  however,  but  for  use.  Some 
illustrative  papers,  uncorrected,  follow. 

I 

The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  that  part  of  a  sentence  which 
denotes  that  about  which  we  are  thinking. 

The  predicate  of  a  sentence  is  that  part  of  a  sentence 
which  asserts  something  about  the  subject. 

The  strong  man  works. 

The  sharp  knife  cuts. 

The  watchful  dog  barks. 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  83 

II 

A  story  about  the  raindrops,  written  after  a  friendly  class 
conversation  on  the  subject;  that  is,  after  oral  composition 
came  the  individual  writing.  The  paper  is  uncorrected,  just 
as  it  came  in  the  first  draft  from  the  pupil,  except  that  the 
effective  original  illustrations  are  omitted. 

THE  RAINDROPS 

The  little  raindrops  were  playing  merrily  on  their  velvet 
carpet  one  day  long,  long  ago  when  all  of  a  sudden  they 
began  to  sing,  hop,  and  dance  because  they  were  leaving 
their  home  and  were  going  to  live  on  the  earth. 

"Oh!  such  fun  we  will  have,"  exclaimed  one  little  rain- 
drop. Another  said,  "  we  will  dance  on  umbrellas,  and  play 
hide-and-seek  on  the  house  tops." 

These  little  raindrops  were  merry  wee  creatures  dancing, 
jumping,  and  singing  to  one  another. 

One  little  raindrop  flew  on  a  wee  baby  plant  and  it  sent 
the  raindrop  down  deep  into  its  roots  to  help  it  to  grow  tall 
and  pretty. 

The  paper  was  handed  back  to  the  child  for  personal 
correction,  and  the  most  noticeable  errors  were  seen  and 
corrected  by  the  writer  herself.  Some  changes  were  made 
in  the  language  of  the  last  paragraph  by  the  teacher,  in  order 
to  avoid  repetition  of  words;  but  the  original  paper,  where 
the  creative  power  was  at  work  and  the  mechanical  accuracy 
was  slumbering  a  little,  is  the  one  given  above. 

SIXTH  YEAR  GRADE 

Formal  grammar  from  a  textbook  begins  in  this  grade, 
but  it  should  develop  so  continuously  from  the  applied 


84  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

grammar  of  the  preceding  grades  that  the  pupil  is  always 
conscious  of  the  direct  and  important  relation  between 
grammar  and  written  or  oral  expression.  The  aims  in 
teaching  grammar  are  broadening  by  the  time  the  sixth 
grade  is  reached.  To  speak  and  to  write  correctly  have  so 
far  been  the  only  purposes,  but  now  there  must  come  the 
recognition  of  the  fact  that  many  pupils  continue  their 
studies  in  higher  institutions  of  learning,  and  that  prepara- 
tion for  work  there  must  begin  in  the  grammar  grades.  The 
textbook  is  now,  necessarily,  the  basis  of  the  year's  work  in 
grammar,  and  a  well  written,  elementary  rhetoric  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  the  teacher  for  guidance  in  composition. 
The  growing  self-consciousness  of  pupils  in  the  sixth,  sev- 
enth, and  eighth  grades  tends  to  weaken  and  shorten  oral 
expression  with  many,  but  papers  are  often  correspondingly 
better,  because  in  writing  there  is  a  feeling  of  freedom  from 
direct  supervision  and  observation. 

There  follows  a  summary  of  some  thoughts  by  a  sixth 
grade  teacher1  on  composition  with  her  grade: 

The  aim  in  this  work  is  to  apply  the  knowledge  gained 
from  a  study  of  technical  grammar  to  oral  language  and  to 
written  exercises.  Much  drill  is  given  in  the  correct  use  of 
prepositions  that  are  commonly  misused,  of  pronouns,  adjec- 
tives, and  adverbs ;  of  the  conjunctions  as  if  and  as  though 
in  distinction  from  the  preposition  like,  so  frequently  used 
for  them,  as  in  the  sentence,  "  It  looks  like  it  would  rain." 
Several  verbs  belong  also  in  this  frequent  drill,  lie  and  lay, 
sit  and  set,  and  others  that,  in  spite  of  careful  oversight  in 
lower  grades,  still  exist  in  the  vocabularies  of  the  pupils  in 

1  Miss  Margaret  Meehan. 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  85 

incorrect  usage,  or  have  returned  into  them  through  force 
of  environment. 

In  sentence  structure,  commencing  with  simple  sentences 
containing  adjective  and  adverbial  modifiers,  we  develop 

phrases  and  clauses,  and  study  compound 
Sentence  ,  ^  . 

Structure  an(^  complex  sentences.     For  example:    A 

golden  wreath  was  given  to  the  victor.  A 
wreath  of  gold  was  given  to  the  victor.  A  wreath  that  was 
made  of  gold  was  given  to  the  victor.  A  wreath  was  made 
of  gold  and  it  was  given  to  the  victor. 

To  make  sentence  structure  plainer,  we  begin  analyzing 
and  diagramming  sentences.  At  first  only  the  simplest  form 
of  sentence,  with  only  a  word  subject  and  a  word  predicate, 
is  taken.  Then  follow  sentences  with  simple  word  modifiers, 
then  with  phrases  and  complements.  The  compound  sen- 
tence is  treated  next ;  and,  last  of  all,  the  complex  sentence. 
All  puzzling  constructions  are  avoided,  for  the  pupils  are 
not  studying  diagramming,  they  are  simply  clearing  away 
difficulties  in  sentence  structure  in  order  to  speak  and  write 
more  correctly.  Analysis  and  the  diagram  are  for  them  a 
means  to  an  end,  not  the  end  desired. 

In  developing  the  singular  and  plural  numbers  of  the  dif- 
ferent persons  and  cases  of  pronouns,  the  following  device 
is  found  helpful : 

took books  with 

Pronouns  . 

took books  with 

The  children  are  told  to  fill  in  the  blanks  in  the  first 
sentence  with  the  pronoun  standing  for  the  person  or  per- 
sons speaking,  thus:  I  (or  we)  took  my  (or  our)  books 
with  me  (or  us).  The  second  is  to  be  filled  in  with  the 
pronouns  standing  for  the  person  or  persons  spoken  to;  a 


86  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

third,  with  the  pronouns  for  the  man  or  men  spoken  of;  a 
fourth,  with  the  pronouns  for  the  woman  or  women 
spoken  of. 

Considerable  drill  is  given  on  the  correct  use  of  two 

pronouns  in  one  construction,  as:  Hattie  spoke  to  

and  .  and  are  going.  They  invited  

and  .  When  the  children  are  puzzled,  as  frequently 

happens,  they  are  helped  out  by  being  told  to  put  in  one 
pronoun  at  a  time,  and  then  to  put  in  the  two  together. 
There  is  often  heard  such  a  form  as,  "He  gave  it  to  you 
and  I."  The  test  in  these  cases  is  to  try  the  pronouns  alone. 
No  child  in  the  sixth  grade  would  say,  He  gave  it  to  I. 

The  pupils  are  also  drilled  in  the  use  of  who  in  its  differ- 
ent cases.  For  example, is  going?  did  you  see? 

In  the  latter  sentence  the  children  are  told  to  find  out  the 
subject,  and  even  to  diagram  the  sentence,  so  that  the  sub- 
ject and  object  are  clearly  pictured.  Time  is  also  taken  to 
show  that  the  same  word  may  be  used  as  different  parts  of 
speech,  as :  salt,  the  noun,  verb,  and  adjective. 

Throughout  the  term  of  ten  months  we  work  in  com- 
bining several  short  sentences  into  a  larger  one,  using  the 
pronoun,  adverbial,  and  verbal  connectives.  In  paragraph- 
ing, such  work  is  done  as  is  within  the  capacity  of  the 
pupils;  both  sentence  and  paragraph  structures  are  kept 
constantly  before  the  pupils,  but  the  drills  come  at  varying 
intervals,  so  that  they  shall  not  be  monotonous.  A  brief 
study  is  made  of  the  stanza,  developing  the  difference  be- 
tween it  and  the  paragraph.  Letters,  both  friendly  and 
business,  are  written,  with  careful  observation  of  the  proper 
forms,  and  many  suggestions  as  to  what  may  be  put  into  the 
body  of  a  letter. 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  8? 

Subjects  for  compositions  are  made  as  varied  as  possible 
within  the  scope  of  the  children's  knowledge :  some  familiar 
work  or  exercise ;  the  noted  pictures,  studied  during  the  term 
from  reproductions  on  the  walls  of  the  schoolroom,  or  from 
the  small  Brown  and  Perry  pictures;  original  stories  of 
some  event;  phrases  suggestive  of  some  occurrence,  as,  in 
the  woods,  under  an  old  oak,  beside  the  stream;  a  list  of 
words  to  be  used  in  a  story,  as,  toad,  cellar,  pile  of  bricks, 
pan  of  milk,  coal-man ;  a  familiar  occurrence,  as,  a  Stockton 
flood,  spearing  wood,  a  tramp  in  the  woods. 

That  use  is  the  keynote  of  the  sixth  grade  language  les- 
sons is  shown  by  the  number  of  the  compositions  in  the 
year's  notebooks.  These  are  first  drafts,  self-corrected,  or 
revised  by  the  teacher,  three  necessary  phases  of  progress 
in  composition.  There  are  also  many  lists  of  grammatical 
points,  as  exercises  on  pronouns,  adjectives,  adverbs,  prin- 
cipal parts  of  commonly  used  verbs,  diagrams  of  easy  sen- 
tences, and  application  in  illustrative  sentences  of  the  points 
studied.  A  few  of  these  exercises  are  appended. 


COMBINING  SENTENCES 

He  drew  a  picture  of  his  home.  It  showed  the  house. 
He  was  born  in  it.  It  also  showed  the  barn.  The  orchard 
was  also  to  be  seen. 

The  picture  he  drew  of  his  home  showed  the  house  which 
he  was  born  in,  the  barn,  and  the  orchard. 

The  orchard,  barn,  and  the  house  he  was  born  in  were 
all  shown  in  the  picture  he  drew  of  his  home. 

He  reached  his  home.    He  gave  orders.    He  was  not  to 


88  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

be  disturbed.  He  went  to  bed.  He  tried  to  sleep.  He 
tried  in  vain. 

When  he  reached  home  he  gave  orders  not  to  be  dis- 
turbed. He  went  to  bed  and  tried  to  sleep  but  in  vain. 

Combining  sentences,  begun  in  the  third  grades,  is  also 
a  frequent  device  in  teaching  sentence  structure,  showing 
the  use  of  relative  pronouns  and  conjunctive  adverbs,  and 
in  giving  a  general  suppleness  in  handling  sentence  forms. 

II 
USE  OF  WHO,  WHOSE,  AND  WHOM 

To  whom  did  she  speak?  Whose  book  is  that?  Whom 
did  you  see?  Who  is  going?  Of  whom  did  you  write?  To 
whose  house  did  you  go?  Whom  did  she  know?  Whose 
pen  is  that?  At  whom  are  they  looking?  To  whose  house 
did  you  go?  Whom  is  writing? 

An  interesting  fact  is  illustrated  by  the  above  exercise. 
The  drill  has  been  largely  upon  whom  and  whose,  and  there 
has  developed  in  the  child's  mind  a  little  vagueness  as  to  the 
use  of  the  nominative  who.  This  indicates  the  necessity  of 
clearing  up  the  sense  of  the  nominative,  and  of  drilling  upon 
who  until  confusion  disappears. 

SEVENTH  YEAR  GRADE 

During  the  seventh  grade  the  pupils  continue  the  textbook 
study  of  grammar,  keeping  the  work  in  close  touch  with  the 
practical  needs  of  ordinary  speech.  Composition  exercises 
are  frequent,  and  considerable  inspiration  is  drawn  from 
the  writers  studied  in  the  literature  throughout  the  year. 
Maturity  of  selection  and  treatment  become  more  noticeable ; 
expressions  of  opinions,  analyses  of  subjects,  comparisons 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  89 

of  authors  and  of  characters,  are  made  more  prominent 
than  in  the  lower  grades.  Narrations  and  descriptions  are 
studied  carefully  in  order  to  acquire  an  apt  and  forceful 
style.  Individuality  of  treatment,  without  eccentricity  or 
absurdity,  is  always  encouraged. 
A  seventh  grade  teacher1  says  of  her  work : 
The  aim  throughout  the  year  is  to  gain  power  in  origi- 
nality and  readiness  of  expression,  and  to  foster  a  literary 
appreciation  of  good  authors.  During  the  first  part  of  the 
year  careful  reviews  are  made  of  the  punctuation  and 
capitalization  studied  in  lower  grades.  Reproduction  exer- 
cises are  continued,  material  being  drawn  principally  from 
the  history.  During  the  early  part  of  the  term  much  of  the 
written  work  consists  of  reproductions,  as  they  furnish 
opportunities  for  putting  into  practice  the  principles  that 
are  to  be  impressed.  The  mind,  not  being  busy  with  original 
thought,  is  left  free  to  exercise  care  in  grammatical  con- 
structions, punctuation,  paragraphing,  sentence  formation. 
These  exercises  tend  to  make  the  accuracies  of  writing  more 
and  more  mechanical,  a  condition  to  which  teacher  and 
pupils  are  consciously  trying  to  attain.  At  the  same  time, 
the  pupil  is  gaining  power  of  expression  and  a  certain  bal- 
ance and  proportion  in  style  from  studying  the  writings  of 
great  authors.  During  some  of  the  literature  periods  there 
is  paraphrasing,  for  the  purpose  of  learning  to  make  clear 
the  thought  of  the  author  with  little  repetition  of  his  lan- 
guage. Such  exercises  are  both  oral  and  written.  There 
are  also  some  book  reviews  during  the  year ;  they  are  prac- 
tice in  giving  in  concise  form  the  thoughts  of  an  author,  and 
they  also  train  the  pupil  in  forming  and  expressing  an 
1  Miss  Ella  Daly. 


9O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

opinion  of  an  author  and  of  his  writings.  As  a  preparation 
for  writing,  the  teacher  occasionally  puts  a  few  suggestive 
questions  on  the  board;  or  the  pupils  talk  over  the  subject 
in  class;  or  an  outline  may  be  developed  and  left  in  sight, 
especially  if  the  paper  is  not  to  be  composed  largely  of  per- 
sonal opinions,  or  if  it  is  to  be  long  and  somewhat  involved. 

In  writing  narratives  one  device  is  to  ask  for  some 
event  in  the  pupil's  own  experience,  as:  Trying  to  keep  a 
secret.  The  trick  that  failed.  An  afternoon  visit.  One 
day  the  class  was  asked  to  write  an  account  of  a  runaway 
that  had  occurred  as  it  might  appear  in  a  daily  newspaper. 
Several  members  of  the  class  were  called  upon  to  read  their 
papers,  after  which  the  question  was  asked,  "  Which  account 
do  you  consider  best?"  Three  papers,  which,  by  the  way, 
were  really  the  most  creditable,  were  the  favored  ones.  The 
question,  "  Why  ?  "  called  out  a  spirited  discussion,  in  which 
many  merits  and  demerits  were  laid  bare.  As  the  criticisms 
were  kindly,  they  resulted  in  stimulating  the  desire  to  write 
more  articles  of  the  same  nature,  and  the  next  newspaper 
report  was  not  only  less  irksome,  but  it  was  also  much  more 
successful  and  businesslike. 

Considerable  attention  is  given  throughout  the  year  to 
letter  forms  and  to  original  thought  of  various  kinds.  Im- 
aginative writing  is  interesting  to  a  large  part  of  the  class, 
and  is  very  helpful,  provided  it  is  kept  along  healthy  lines. 
In  connection  with  the  history  study  of  the  battle  of  Lexing- 
ton and  the  reading  in  literature  of  the  ride  of  Paul  Revere, 
the  pupils  were  asked  to  imagine  themselves  living  on  the 
outskirts  of  Lexington  on  the  eighteenth  of  April,  1775,  and 
to  tell  the  story  of  that  thrilling  night  and  the  following 
day :  the  approach  of  Paul  Revere,  the  stir  occasioned  in  the 


ORAL  AND   WRITTEN    LANGUAGE  9! 

home,  some  loved  ones  up  and  away  at  the  country's  call, 
the  anxiety  and  interest  in  the  battle,  the  result  of  the  con- 
flict, and  the  return  of  the  patriots. 

It  is  not  deemed  necessary,  or  even  advisable,  for  the 
teacher  to  correct  all  the  written  work,  although  many  sets 

of  papers  are  so  treated.     Sometimes  the 
Correction  M      -  .    . 

of  Papers  pupils  themselves  read  over  their  papers  a 

few  days  after  writing,  and  it  is  surprising 
how  many  of  their  own  errors  they  are  able  to  correct.  One 
method  of  class  correction  is  to  place  upon  the  board  for 
class  criticism,  by  which  is  meant  only  friendly  criticism, 
several  paragraphs  from  the  work  of  various  pupils,  without 
giving  names.  Such  extracts  are  taken  up,  sentence  by  sen- 
tence, improvements  being  suggested  by  the  class.  Very 
often  some  of  the  best  ideas  come  from  the  writers  of  the 
papers,  showing  that  more  careful  or  more  deliberate  con- 
sideration is  all  that  is  necessary  for  better  work.  In  this 
form  of  criticism,  where  self-consciousness  is  engendered 
under  even  the  most  favorable  circumstances  because  of  the 
publicity  of  the  corrections,  teacher  and  pupils  make  favor- 
able comments  on  good  points  noticed.  Appreciation  is  as 
helpful  as  adversative  criticism.  If  one  is  striving  toward  a 
higher  standard,  and  knows  what  he  is  trying  to  do,  many 
weaknesses  drop  off  of  themselves,  and  the  attitude  of  the 
worker  towards  his  work  is  reversed, — he  is  urged  onward 
by  consciously  adding  strength,  not  depressed  by  being 
turned  constantly  toward  his  mistakes.  Sometimes  one  of 
the  best  papers  is  copied  on  the  board,  to  show  that  glaring 
errors  do  not  always  occur,  and  as  an  incentive  to  bring 
up  the  average  work  of  the  class. 
One  of  the  most  valuable  forms  of  correction,  or  one  of 


92  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

the  farthest-reaching  in  its  effects,  is  for  the  teacher  to  pass 
from  desk  to  desk  while  the  writing  is  in  progress,  calling 
attention  to  mistakes  as  they  are  made,  the  pupils  correcting 
immediately.  The  force  of  the  correction  seems  to  be  more 
easily  comprehended  by  both  teacher  and  pupil.  This  plan 
is  most  feasible  in  reproductions,  where  little  interruption 
to  the  thought  is  to  be  feared. 

In  these  days  one  mentions  formal  grammar  almost  with 
an  apology  for  the  words ;  but,  no  matter  what  the  fads  of 
the  day,  a  scholar  always  has  a  wholesome 
Grammar  respect  for  the  essentials  of  English  gram- 

mar. If  every  child  could  be  brought  up 
where  he  heard  only  correct  expressions,  he  might  never 
have  to  hesitate  between  right  and  wrong  forms  of  speech ; 
but,  as  such  ideal  conditions  rarely  exist,  all  pupils  need 
careful  training  in  grammar  and  in  its  application.  I  think 
that  it  was  Holmes  who  said:  "Grammar  is  the  humble, 
oft-despised,  but  truly  loyal  hand-maid  of  thought's  best 
expression." 

During  this  year,  formal  grammar  takes  a  recognized 
place  in  the  curriculum,  and  a  fairly  thorough  study  is  made 
of  the  parts  of  speech  with  their  forms  and  modifications. 
When  any  part  of  speech  is  taken  up  its  various  uses  in  a 
sentence  are  carefully  dwelt  upon,  and  illustrative  sentences 
are  constructed.  That  is,  the  noun  as  subject  of  a  verb; 
object  of  a  verb,  participle,  infinitive;  a  predicate  noun; 
object  of  a  preposition;  possessive  modifier  of  a  noun  or  an 
infinitive;  appositive  modifier  of  the  subject,  object,  predi- 
cate noun;  as  an  adverb.  The  other  parts  of  speech  are 
treated  in  the  same  way,  and  the  vocabularies  of  the  pupils 
grow  visibly  more  flexible  through  the  knowledge  gained. 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  93 

The  time  devoted  to  language  and  grammar  is  twenty- 
five  minutes  daily.  Compositions  based  upon  other  subjects 
are  written  during  the  periods  given  to  those  branches. 
" Evangeline's  Search  for  Gabriel,"  "A  Day  at  Ichabod's 
School,"  belong  to  the  literature  period;  "The  Battle  of 
Lexington,"  "  Our  Flag,"  are  history  writing ;  "  The  Story 
of  Belgium,"  "Eve  of  Waterloo,"  are  geography  papers; 
but  any  of  them  may  come  into  the  language  period  for 
correction  and  discussion  as  to  treatment. 

Several  seventh  grade  drills,  taken  from  the  notebooks  of 
pupils,  are  given  below. 


USE  OF  MAY,  CAN;  MIGHT,  COULD 

Statements  to  be  remembered:  May  asks  and  gives  per- 
mission. Can  implies  ability  to  do  something. 

Can  I  go  ?  means,  Am  I  able  to  go  ? 

You  can  go,  means,  You  are  able  to  go. 

May  I  go  ?  means,  Have  I  permission  to  go  ? 

You  may  go,  means,  You  have  permission  to  go. 

I,  myself,  know  best  whether  or  not  I  can  do  a  thing. 
Whether  or  not  I  may  do  a  thing  usually  depends  upon  my 
receiving  permission  to  do  so. 

I  hope  I  can  go,  but  I  am  not  yet  well. 

I  hope  I  may  go,  but  my  father  may  not  consent. 

You  may  go,  Charles,  and  see  whether  you  can  unlock 
that  door. 

Mr.  Brown  told  John  he  might  stay  over  night. 

I  wish  you  could  get  your  lessons  without  help  from 
others. 


94  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

III 

COMMON  ERRORS 

Lie        lay       lying       lain. 

Lay       laid      laying     laid. 
Lay  requires  an  object. 
Lie,  meaning  to  rest,  never  requires  an  object. 
The  autumn  leaves  lie  scattered  on  the  pavement. 
The  rain  will  lay  the  dust. 
I  found  a  horseshoe  lying  in  the  road. 
Mother  has  lain  down  to  rest. 
Many  poets  have  been  laid  to  rest  in  Westminster. 
The  snow  will  not  lie  long  on  the  ground. 
The  men  are  laying  a  concrete  sidewalk. 
Do  not  leave  your  hat  lying  in  a  chair. 
Will  you  lay  aside  your  work? 
Lake  Ontario  lies  between  New  York  and  Canada. 

IV 

A  NEST  IN  A  POCKET  (Uncorrected) 

One  spring  day,  a  bird  in  search  of  a  place  to  build  a  nest, 

was  flitting  about  our  back  yard.    This  bird  was  a  sparrow, 

not  very  beautiful  I  thought,  but  she  seemed  so  restless. 

Finally  she  peeped  into  the  granary;  she  stayed  there 

quite  a  while,  and  then  I  noticed  her  carrying  in  grass  and 

stuffs,  and  of  course  I  knew  what  she  was  doing;  but  I 

kept  right  still  and  did  not  let  anybody  know.    No  one  knew 

where  she  built  her  nest,  and  I  know  nobody  could  guess. 

It  was  in  the  farmer's  coat  pocket. 

There  she  built  her  nest  and  in  a  few  days  more  I  heard 
a  tiny  chirp  up  in  the  granary  where  the  grain  was  stored. 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  95 

We  let  them  alone  until  one  day  the  farmer  missing  his  coat, 
thought  he  would  go  up  into  the  granary  and  get  it.  When 
he  stepped  on  the  floor  of  the  loft  he  heard  a  most  awful 
chirp  and  then  such  a  fluttering. 

Although  he  needed  his  coat  he  let  the  birds  stay  there 
until  they  could  fly.  He  went  home  and  told  his  wife  who 
advised  him  to  leave  them  there. 

A  few  days  later  the  mother  and  all  the  family  were  seen 
flying  about,  and  so  we  knew  she  had  left  the  pocket.  She 
came  up  to  the  door  one  day  and  just  the  same  as  said, 
"  Thank  you,"  for  the  nest  which  she  had  borrowed. 

The  farmer  felt  very  proud  of  the  coat  and  showed  it  to 
nearly  every  one  who  came  to  his  house.  He  left  the  coat 
up  in  the  granary  to  see  if  another  bird  would  want  it  for 
a  nest. 

The  creative  spirit  expresses  itself  beautifully  in  this 
paper,  and  the  mechanics  are  not  very  faulty  for  a  seventh 
grade  child.  There  is  abundant  suggestion  in  it  for  the 
teacher  in  guiding  the  whole  class.  "  A  most  awful  chirp  " 
calls  for  the  selection  of  an  appropriate  adjective.  Several 
places  need  punctuation  study.  Some  of  the  pronouns  need 
to  be  attached  more  closely  to  their  antecedents.  A  few  of 
the  sentence  structures  can  be  strengthened.  Seventh  grade 
pupils  should  be  using  the  connective  that  more  frequently. 
Care  should  be  taken  in  such  corrections  that  the  teacher's 
personality  is  not  impressed  upon  the  literary  side  of  the 
paper,  but  that  the  individuality  of  the  writer  is  preserved. 

EIGHTH  YEAR  GRADE 

In  this,  the  last  year  of  the  elementary  grades,  the  work 
is  governed  largely  by  textbooks.  The  grammar  is  com- 


96  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

pleted,  and  the  composition  is  aided  and  guided  by  a  begin- 
ner's rhetoric  and  composition  textbook,  in  the  hands  of  the 
teacher.  Plenty  of  practice,  so  arranged  as  not  to  become 
monotonous,  is  given  in  writing.  Pupils  are  held  to  what 
has  been  learned  in  grammar  and  writing,  just  as  they 
would  be  in  any  other  subject.  Mistakes  in  known  capi- 
talization, punctuation,  spelling,  are  looked  upon  just  as 
inaccuracies  in  multiplication  would  be  considered  in 
arithmetic. 

There  follow  some  extracts  from  a  paper  on  language, 
submitted  by  a  teacher  in  an  eighth  grade  i1 

Composition  is  along  the  lines  of  invention,  description, 
reproduction.  Numerous  quick  pencil  sketches  are  re- 
quired; these  are  discussed  in  class,  or  privately  if  the 
errors  are  special  rather  than  general.  The  necessity  for 
unity  is  discussed,  and  the  means  of  obtaining  it.  One  way 
of  investigation  is  reading  from  good  authors.  The  pupils 
note  the  points  that,  in  their  opinion,  make  the  description 
strong;  they  tell  the  effect  upon  their  own  imaginations; 
they  analyze  as  well  as  they  can;  they  discuss  the  way  in 
which  the  description  grows.  After  this  consideration  by 
the  class,  papers  are  written,  in  which  the  pupils  try  to 
embody  some  of  the  essential  points  that  have  been  noticed. 

For  a  subject  on  which  to  write  after  such  a  discussion 
something  familiar  is  suggested,  some  pleasing  feature  of 
our  own  surroundings,  perhaps.  The  pupils  are  asked  to  go 
to  the  place,  to  think  about  it,  to  study  it  while  before  it, 
and  to  try  to  make  their  observations  and  ideas  real  to  others 
by  means  of  pen  and  paper.  In  narration,  an  account  of 
some  occurrence  on  the  playground  or  in  town  may  be  called 

'Miss  Belle  Mitchell. 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  97 

for.  This  may  be  talked  over  in  class,  so  that  the  points 
stand  out  clearly,  then  a  quick  sketch  is  asked  for.  Pupils 
who  did  not  witness  the  event  write  it  up  from  the  talk, 
while  those  who  saw  it  are  expected  to  give  it  the  vividness 
of  an  eye-witness. 

All  the  pupils  keep  their  written  work  for  the  year  in 
portfolios.  Occasionally,  the  class  period  is  devoted  to  self- 
study  and  criticism,  by  looking  over  these  papers  and  writ- 
ing down  the  observations  made.  Such  information  as  the 
following  is  frequently  given  by  the  self-critics : 

"  I  am  careless  in  the  use  of  commas,  of  's,  and  of  quota- 
tion marks."  "  I  often  use  the  wrong  form  of  the  pronoun 
and  verb."  "  I  do  not  place  my  phrases  and  clauses  so  as  to 
express  my  meaning  clearly."  "  I  put  two  paragraphs  into 
one."  "  My  paragraphs  lack  unity." 

It  is  needless  to  add  that  such  a  search  into  one's  own 
weaknesses  is  often  the  most  effective  cure. 

From  many  eighth  grade  papers  a  few  are  chosen  illus- 
trating drills  in  sentence  structure,  one  of  the  particular 
points  for  the  year ;  others  show  special  features  of  training. 

I 
SENTENCE  STRUCTURE 

The  poorly  constructed  sentence  is  given  first,  followed 
by  the  recast,  sometimes  obtained  by  concerted  class  action, 
sometimes  through  correction  or  suggestion  by  the  teacher, 
while  sometimes  it  is  the  individual  effort  of  the  child. 

a 

Just  a  short  distance  from  the  pavilion  is  the  palace,  with 
8 


98  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

its  long  arcades  and  ornamental  columns,  and  its  gardens 
which  are  called  the  Generalife. 

My  sentence  sounds  as  if  the  gardens  were  the  Generalife 
instead  of  the  palace. 

Just  a  short  distance  from  the  white  pavilions  is  the  pal- 
ace, or  Generalife,  with  its  long  arcades,  its  ornamented 
columns,  and  its  gardens. 

b 

At  these  missions  were  where  the  Indians  built  their 
homes,  and  it  was  there  that  they  were  converted  to  the 
Catholic  religion,  to  cultivate  the  soil,  to  do  carpentering, 
and  to  build  adobe  houses. 

The  sentence  is  so  poorly  constructed  that  the  meaning 
is  not  clear. 

It  was  at  these  missions  that  the  Indians  built  their  homes, 
were  converted  to  the  Catholic  religion,  learned  to  cultivate 
the  soil,  to  do  carpentering,  and  to  build  adobe  houses. 

Second  correction:  It  was  at  these  missions  that  the 
Indians  built  their  homes,  learned  to  cultivate  the  soil,  to  do 
carpentering,  and  to  build  adobe  houses.  It  was  here  also 
that  they  were  converted  to  the  Catholic  religion. 

II 

USE  OF  ADVERBS 

Sentences  taken  from  various  papers  by  the  pupils. 
We  always  should  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. 
It  is  impossible  continually  to  be  at  work. 
The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  motion  perpetually. 
Not  only  he  found  her  busy,  but  pleased  and  happy  even. 
Rule  to  guide  in  the  correction  of  the  above  errors :  Place 


ORAL  AND  WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  99 

adverbs  where  there  will  be  no  doubt  what  word  or  thought 
they  modify. 

CORRECTIONS 

We  should  always  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. 

It  is  impossible  to  be  continually  at  work. 

The  heavenly  bodies  are  perpetually  in  motion.  Or,  The 
heavenly  bodies  are  in  perpetual  motion. 

He  not  only  found  her  busy,  but  even  pleased  and  happy. 
Or,  He  found  her  not  only  busy  but  even  pleased  and  happy. 


CHAPTER  VII 
WORD  STUDY 

One  charm  in  a  ready  speaker  lies  in  his  mastery  of 
words.    Whether  this  power  is  natural  or  acquired  it  is  the 

growth  of  years.     Observation,   accuracy. 
Power  Over 
Words  use,  are  the  means  by  which  it  is  built  up. 

Observation  of  new  words;  accuracy  of 
meaning  and  pronunciation;  frequent,  familiar  use  in  con- 
versation and  writing.  Children  begin  their  word  studies 
with  phonics,  which  should  be  continued  through  three  or 
four  years,  until  a  thorough  foundation  has  been  laid  for  all 
ordinary  pronunciations  and  spellings.  The  dictionary  and 
analysis  of  words  carries  forward  this  systematic  acquaint- 
ance even  into  the  high  school,  where  language  studies  sup- 
plement the  work  begun  in  the  phonics  of  the  first  grade 
Drills  in  phonics  are  daily  exercises  during  the  first  three 
years  in  school.  The  first  thought  is  to  secure  distinct  artic- 
ulation and  accurate  pronunciation,  and,  by 
Phonics 

providing  a  key  to  language,  to  prepare  th< 

children  for  independent,  self-reliant  reading.  Both  the  ear 
and  the  eye  must  be  trained.  The  ear  must  learn  to  recog- 
nize sounds  readily,  through  slow  pronunciation,  or  sepa- 
ration of  a  word  into  its  sounds ;  ear  training  should  precede 
sight  training.  The  eye  must  learn  to  know  instantly  the 
letter,  syllable,  or  word  presented  to  it.  For  this  purpose 
every  primary  room  should  be  provided  with  cards,  on 
which  are  the  letters,  phonograms  and  sight  words  to  be 

100 


WORD  STUDY  IOI 

taken  up  in  the  daily  drills  of  the  year.  Type  words  are 
made  the  bases  for  the  accumulation  of  many  lists  of  words 
in  the  first  three  or  four  grades. 

From  the  first  acquaintance  with  words  careful  attention 
is  given  to  their  spelling,  one  of  the  essentials  in  a  school 

course.     Spelling  can  not  be  learned  inci- 
Spelling 

dentally;  much  can  be  taught  in  connection 

with  all  written  exercises,  but  a  regular  place  should  be  pro- 
vided on  the  program  for  persistent  daily  drill  on  selected 
words.  A  carefully  chosen  list  for  every  grade  is  a  neces- 
sity. It  is  the  core  of  the  work  in  spelling,  and  should  be 
made  up  of  a  stock  of  common  words  from  the  vocabularies 
of  the  children.  It  should  not  be  so  exhaustive  as  to  prevent 
the  teacher  from  adding  other  words  that  are  needed  from 
day  to  day. 

The  majority  of  pupils  learn  to  spell  most  accurately 
through  the  use  of  the  eye ;  many,  however,  acquire  a  surer 
knowledge  through  the  ear ;  all  are  assisted  by  speech.  The 
best  results  are  secured  by  appealing  to  the  mind  through  all 
these  avenues  of  approach.  The  unit  of  pronunciation  is 
the  syllable,  and  no  method  has  produced  better  readers  or 
spellers  than  the  old-time  oral  spelling  with  its  pronunciation 
of  syllables. 

Pupils  are  trained  to  avoid  guessing  at  spelling.  In  the 
primary  grades,  if  they  do  not  know  how  to  spell  any  word 
needed  in  their  writing,  they  are  encouraged  to  ask  help 
from  the  teacher;  in  the  grammar  grades,  they  consult  the 
dictionary.  Teachers  keep  lists  of  words  frequently  mis- 
spelled, and  the  children  are  encouraged  to  make  notes  of 
words  which  they  have  missed.  Occasionally  some  pupil's 
list  is  taken  as  the  basis  of  the  day's  spelling.  In  all  grades, 


IO2  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

as  an  incentive  to  self-criticism,  pupils  sometimes  make 
up  the  list  of  words  for  the  lesson  from  those  that  they  feel 
ought  to  be  known,  but  which  are  really  troublesome.  The 
names  of  the  days,  months,  seasons,  holidays,  objects  in  the 
schoolroom,  articles  of  clothing,  household  utensils,  things 
bought  at  a  grocery  store,  occupations,  words  alike  in  termi- 
nations, words  illustrating  a  certain  sound  of  a  letter  or 
diphthong,  words  having  a  common  syllable,  are  suggestions 
for  interesting  and  important  spelling  lists.  All  unfamiliar 
words  are  used  in  sentences,  oral  and  written.  Many  words 
aie  defined  as  well  as  used.  The  common  homonyms  are 
carefully  taught,  associated  with  the  meaning,  and  so  pre- 
sented in  writing  that  the  one  will  not  suggest  the  meaning 
of  the  other. 

The  pupils  are  led  to  formulate  inductively  the  more  im- 
portant rules  for  spelling,  such  as:  retaining  or  dropping 
final  e;  doubling  a  final  consonant;  retaining  or  changing 
final  y.  Before  taking  up  these  rules  the  pupils  must  be 
able  to  distinguish  clearly  between  vowels  and  consonants. 

The  study  of  phonics  leads  naturally  into  word  analysis. 

In  the  grammar  grades  word  analysis  is  phonics,  grown  into 

a    scholar,    investigating    the    history    and 

W  radical  make-up  of  the  words  that,  in  the 

Analysis 

primary  grades,  were  his  playthings  as  h 

formed  them  from  letters  and  phonograms.  Anglo-Saxor 
prefixes,  suffixes,  and  roots  are  taken  first,  as  they  are  sim 
pier  and  more  frequently  found  in  the  vocabularies  of  th 
children;  but  Greek  and  Latin  elements,  as  they  occur,  ar 
used  in  an  elementary  way,  as :  tele-phone,  tele-graph,  tele 
scope;  geo~graphy,  tele-graphy,  bio-graphy,  ortho-graphy 
After  attention  has  been  called  to  such  a  syllable,  short  list 


WORD   STUDY  IO3 

are  made  of  words  in  which  it  is  found.  These  lists  are 
usually  left  on  the  board  for  several  days,  so  that  the  words 
sink  into  the  memories,  and  so  that  new  words  can  be  added 
as  suggested  by  the  children.  This  work  is  generally  very 
interesting,  pupils  hunting  eagerly  for  more  words  to  add 
to  the  lists,  thus,  unconsciously,  adding  rapidly  to  their  vo- 
cabularies. The  treatment  is  not  formal  or  mechanical,  nor 
is  it  in  the  nature  of  textbook  presentation.  To  the  children 
the  lesson  seems  to  be  suggested  by  the  reading;  but  the 
teacher  really  has  in  mind  a  definite  plan  that  aids  in  the 
selection  of  certain  words  and  the  exclusion  of  others. 
Affixes  are  most  readily  taught,  but  root  syllables  are  also 
frequently  made  bases  for  lists,  as:  art,  art-istic,  arMst, 
art-izan,  artificial. 

There  should  be  regular  lessons,  at  least  once  a  month, 
taking  the  place  of  some  exercise  in  language  or  literature. 
These  lessons  should  be  so  carefully  planned  that  they 
progress  from  month  to  month.  Too  much  must  not  be 
attempted.  Thorough  knowledge  of  a  little  is  power,  a 
smattering  of  much  is  weakness. 

FIRST  YEAR  GRADE 

The  first  step  is  to  train  the  beginner  to  recognize  the 
various  sounds  of  which  a  word  is  made  up.    The  name  of  a 
familiar  object   is  pronounced   slowly,   as, 
Training  c-a-t;  the  pupil  recognizes  the  word,  pro- 

nounces it  himself,  so  as  to  give  the  three 
sounds ;  then  he  gives  it  as  a  whole,  but  trying  to  hear  the 
sounds.  Many  words  are  given  in  the  same  way,  those 
being  chosen  which  are  familiar  and  that  have  distinct 
sounds,  easily  separated  and  reunited.  The  teacher  gives 


IO4  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

action  words ;  such  as,  jump,  run,  skip,  sing,  cry,  separating 
them  into  their  sounds,  the  pupil  performing  the  act  as 
soon  as  he  recognizes  the  word.  The  pupils  pronounce 
words  in  a  similar  manner  for  their  classmates  to  perform 
the  action,  or  for  the  teacher  or  pupils  to  guess.  This  is  a 
very  important  part  of  the  work,  requiring  much  time  and 
patience.  Its  mastery  by  the  pupils  means  quick  recognition 
of  sounds;  hurried  and  inaccurate  training  leaves  the  chil- 
dren incapable  of  taking  this  first  step  in  phonics,  and  sub- 
sequent work  will  be  weak  and  full  of  errors.  Games,  fre- 
quent changes  of  teacher  and  pupil  in  giving  sounds,  action 
words,  guessing  contests,  all  tend  to  keep  the  interest  from 
lagging,  until  the  pupils  are  led  into  a  high  degree  of 
accuracy  in  recognizing  words  from  their  sounds  and  in 
separating  one  sound  into  several.  Children  even  begin  to 
notice  the  inaccuracies  of  pronunciation,  as,  in  for  ing,  kin 
for  can,  although  wholly  dependent  upon  the  teacher  in 
this  respect. 

When  the  child  recognizes  quickly  the  word  as  a  whole 
from  its  sounds,  and  can  separate  a  word  quickly  into  its 

sounds,    work    begins    with    phonograms. 
Phonograms 

Some  phonogram,  as  at>  is  chosen.    When, 

as  in  this  case,  it  is  a  complete  word,  the  children  use  it  as  a 
word  in  sentences,  until  the  teacher  is  sure  that  they  know 
just  what  the  word  is  and  how  to  use  it.  The  children  get 
the  sounds,  a-t,  by  slow  pronunciation.  They  are  drilled  to 
associate  thoroughly  the  letter  with  its  sound.  The  letter 
is  made  and  the  sound  called  for ;  the  sound  is  given,  and  the 
children  are  asked  to  give  or  find  the  letter;  they  write  the 
phonogram. 
When  the  teacher  is  convinced  that  the  phonogram  is 


WORD   STUDY 

known,  word  building  begins.  The  picture  01  a  cat  is  shown, 
and  the  word  is  placed  upon  the  blackboard.  The,  sounds 
are  given,  the  children  discovering  almost  immediately  that 
cat  contains  the  same  combination,  at,  with  which  they  have 
just  been  working.  A  hat  is  shown  the  children,  the  sounds 
of  the  word  are  given,  and  the  word  is  quickly  classified  with 
cat  and  at.  The  accumulation  of  words  now  proceeds  rap- 
idly and  pleasantly.  The  phonogram  at  being  well  known, 
the  drills  are  really  to  teach  the  children  the  consonant 
sounds  that  precede  in  the  various  words,  cat,  rat,  Nat,  hat, 
mat,  bat.  The  children  must  become  thoroughly  familiar 
with  these  consonants,  for  much  depends  upon  the  knowl- 
edge now  gained. 

New  phonograms,  as,  it,  et,  ut,  ot,  follow.  Every  day's 
lesson  is  introduced  by  a  three  or  four  minute  drill  on  those 
already  learned,  sets  of  cards  being  a  convenient  way  of 
conducting  a  rapid  recitation.  As  lists  of  words  are  made 
out,  it  is  well  to  have  the  pupils  define  the  words  they  give, 
especially  if  there  is  any  probability  that  they  are  giving 
sounds  in  place  of  known  words.  Although  the  definitions 
may  be  crude,  the  vocabularies  will  be  strengthened  by  the 
new  familiarity  with  the  words. 

After  the  study  of  the  phonogram  at,  there  are  taken  up 
those  formed  with  the  vowels  and  b,  as,  ab,  eb,  ib,  etc.; 
then  with  d,  as,  ad,  ed;  with  g,  as,  ag;  with  m,  as,  am;  with  n, 
as,  an,  en.  The  pupils  are  now  ready  to  study  the  long  vow- 
els. Many  of  the  words  already  listed  can  be  used,  as,  at,  ate; 
fat,  fate;  mat,  mate;  met,  mete;  pet,  Pete;  bit,  bite;  not, 
note;  cub,  cube.  Other  sounds  of  the  vowels  can  now  fol- 
low, and  diphthongs  begin  to  appear. 

In  spelling,  the  children  first  learn  to  distinguish  forms 


IO6  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

and  to  see  the  word.    Careful  attention  is  given  to  this  in 

in  the    different   subjects, — reading,    drawing, 

numbers.    The  first  real  attempt  at  spelling 

is  to  reproduce  the  word  by  copying  from  the  blackboard. 

This  is  done  with  the  cardboard  letters  with  which  every 

teacher  is  supplied ;  later  the  word  is  copied  upon  the  board 

by  the  child.     After  much  preliminary  work  of  this  kind, 

flash  spelling  is  introduced  and  continued  throughout  the 

year.    Words  and  simple  sentences  are  dictated. 

The  names  of  the  letters  are  used  only  incidentally  at 
first;  but  as  the  child  becomes  familiar  with  the  long  and 
the  short  sounds  of  the  vowels  and  with  the  consonant 
sounds,  there  are  associated  with  the  characters  their  alpha- 
bet names.  When  a  pupil  leaves  the  first  grade  he  should 
know  all  the  letters  by  name  and  be  able  to  give  them  in 
order. 

SECOND  YEAR  GRADE 

The  first  work  of  this  year  is  to  review  carefully  what 
was  done  in  the  preceding  grade,  for  little  folks  forget 

easily.     For  new  drills  some  of  the  sounds 
Phonics 

that  were  only  touched  upon  in  the  first 

year  are  used,  as:  a  in  ask;  oo  in  stoop  and  in  look;  u  in 
rude ;  ph  in  cipher ;  gh  in  laugh,  and  others  that  proved  too 
confusing  during  the  first  lessons.  This  is  an  individual 
matter  with  every  class,  depending  upon  conditions  often 
external  to  the  schoolroom.  Abundance  of  material  is  found 
in  the  words  of  the  day's  lessons  in  history,  literature,  nature 
study,  reading,  numbers. 

Copying  exercises  and  flash  spelling  are  continued 
throughout  the  year.  There  are  oral  and  written  lessons  in 


WORD  STUDY 


ID/ 


Spelling 


spelling  every  day.  Words  and  simple  sentences  are  dic- 
tated. Many  lists  are  used  from  the  vocabularies  of  the 
children  and  from  the  various  lessons  of  the 
day.  Words  of  more  than  one  syllable  are 
divided  into  their  parts.  Pupils  in  advanced  grades  often 
make  the  mistake  of  dividing  words  anywhere,  because 
they  are  ignorant  of  the  proper  divisions.  This  can  be  pre- 
vented, in  part  at  least,  by  training  the  children  from  the 
first  to  recognize  the  syllables  of  a  word  in  spelling  and  in 
pronunciation,  and  often  in  lists  for  writing.  The  use  of 
the  hyphen  is  not  necessary,  the  word  is  spaced,  joy  ful  ly. 
If  a  division  comes  at  the  end  of  a  line  the  hyphen  is  used. 
The  meanings  of  simple  prefixes  and  suffixes  are  easily 
studied,  and,  although  much  is  forgotten  by  these  little  folks, 
so  much  is  retained  that  the  effort  is  well  worth  making. 
Some  of  those  used  are,  ing,  as  in  going,  coming;  er,  in 
faster,  nearer;  est,  in  sweetest,  hottest;  less,  in  careless, 
homeless ;  ness,  in  kindness,  sickness ;  ful,  in  careful,  useful. 

Contractions,  as  don't,  can't,  are  expanded  to  find  out 
what  they  really  are  made  up  of.  Synonyms,  homonyms, 
and  definitions  help  interweave  the  word  study  and  the 
language  work. 

The  following  is  summarized  from  a  year's  work  with 
second  grade  pupils  :r 

As  in  the  first  grade  word  study  generally  means  phonics 
and  spelling.  Fifteen  minutes  are  given  to  phonics  daily 
throughout  the  year.  Ten  minutes  daily  are  given  to  writ- 
ten spelling,  five  minutes  to  oral  spelling.  Lists  of  from  ten 

fifteen  words  are  given  during  the  first  part  of  the  year ; 
iter,  the  number  is  increased  to  eighteen  or  twenty.    Two 

1  Teacher,  Miss  Flora  E.  LaRue. 


IO8  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

or  three  sentences  are  used  in  every  written  lesson,  in  order 
to  present  some  of  the  words  from  the  lists  in  their  connec- 
tion with  other  words  and  in  sentence  meaning.  During  a 
large  part  of  the  year  a  period  of  fifteen  minutes  a  week 
is  given  to  a  spelling  match.  In  this,  as  in  all  oral  spelling, 
all  words  must  be  divided  into  their  syllables,  which  are 
pronounced  as  spelled. 

The  first  two  weeks  of  the  year  are  devoted  to  a  review 
of  the  sounds  and  names  of  the  letters.  Beginning  with  a, 
the  sounds  of  the  vowels,  diacritically  marked,  are  placed 
upon  the  blackboard.  These  are  pronounced  carefully  by 
the  children,  who  also  give  lists  of  words  containing  the 
sounds.  The  set  of  phonic  cards  supplies  a  means  of  rapid 
oral  drill. 

In  the  second  month,  the  study  of  final  y  is  begun.    The 

pupils  are  accustomed  to  calling  the  vowels  sisters,  and  the 

consonants  brothers;  they  know  that  there 

Jiflfll     JL 

are  seven  sisters  and  many  brothers.  This 
device,  whose  usefulness  soon  passes,  is  very  helpful  at 
first,  when  so  much  depends  upon  distinguishing  between 
vowels  and  consonants,  but  while  the  process  is  still  difficult 
for  such  little  children.  Many  words  are  shown  the  chil- 
dren; as,  boy,  boys;  baby,  babies;  play,  plays.  After  some 
study  it  is  discovered  without  the  teacher's  help  that  words 
ending  in  y  with  a  "sister  "  before  it  add  s  in  the  plural ; 
but  that  if  the  final  y  has  a  "  brother  "  before  it,  y  changes 
to  *  and  es  is  added. 

With  the  help  of  the  teacher,  so  that  no  mistakes  are 
made,  a  list  of  plurals  is  made  out  of  words  ending  in  y. 
Word  building  can  now  be  greatly  enlarged,  and  such  lists 
as  the  following  are  made:  try,  tries,  tried;  play,  played, 


WORD  STUDY  1 09 

player,  plays;  gay,  gayer,  gayest.  Word  building  with 
words  of  this  kind  is  given  constant  attention  throughout 
the  year. 

During  this  same  month  word  building  with  ing  is  com- 
menced.    The  first  words  taken  are  those  in  which  the 
syllable  is  simply  added,  as  in  play,  playing ; 

The  the  next  list  is  of  words  like  come,  coming, 

Suffix 

Ing  where  final  e  is  dropped;  finally,  the  words 

used  are  like  stop,  stopping,  where  the  final 
consonant  is  doubled.  Having  already  learned  that  final  e 
is  dropped  on  adding  the  suffix  ing,  the  pupils  now  learn 
that  it  is  dropped  upon  adding  any  suffix  beginning  with 
a  vowel;  as,  bake,  baking,  baker,  baked,  bakes.  That  is, 
as  the  little  folks  say,  "  Two  sisters  do  not  stand  together 
in  these  places,  they  want  a  brother  between  them."  A 
great  deal  of  attention  is  also  given  to  words  doubling  the 
final  consonant;  as,  fit,  fitting,  fitted,  fitter.  Words  of  this 
class  are  the  most  difficult  of  all  to  master ;  they  need  much 
patient  drilling  for  more  than  one  year  with  the  majority 
of  pupils. 

Some  very  simple  prefixes  and  suffixes  are  studied  to 
show  the  meaning  which  they  give  to  words  and  to  impress 

their   spelling.     The  ones  usually  selected 

Prefixes  ar^  ^  joyful ;  less,  homeless ;  un,  unkind ; 

Suffixes 

R00ts  a,   ashore.     There    is   easy   word   building 

with  roots.  Some  simple  word,  as  truth,  is 
taken  from  a  reading  lesson  and  derivatives  are  called  for. 
The  pupils  enjoy  this  work  greatly,  and  lists  are  quickly 
made  up.  They  readily  give  such  words  as  truthful,  truth- 
fully, truthfulness;  the  negative  forms  are  given  with  just 
as  much  ease,  untruth,  untruthfully,  untruthful,  untruthful- 


IIO  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

ness.  If  the  children  are  told  that  a  certain  word  or  affix 
is  to  be  studied  the  next  day  in  class,  they  delight  in  bring- 
ing in  lists.  These  are  sometimes  surprisingly  long  and 
complete,  resulting  in  a  remarkable  increase  in  the  size  of 
the  child's  vocabulary  and  in  the  accuracy  of  its  use. 

Lists  of  words  are  frequently  marked  as  to  syllables  and 
pronunciation.  Punctuation  and  capitalization  in  the  sen- 
tence writing  are  carefully  watched.  Early  in  the  year 
the  children  begin  to  use  ink  in  writing  the  daily  lessons; 
this  calls  for  great  care,  for  all  scratchings  and  repetitions 
are  counted  as  errors. 

No  brief  summary  can  reproduce  the  work  of  a  year,  but 
the  above  suggests  its  scope  and  spirit.  In  the  hands  of  an 
earnest,  inspiring  teacher,  who  sees  the  value  of  knowledge 
for  its  own  sake  and  for  the  power  that  it  gives  a  child, 
even  phonics  become  deeply  interesting  to  many  pupils  and 
exceedingly  practical  for  all.  If  up  to  this  time  the  chil- 
dren have  been  carefully  trained  in  their  phonics  and  word 
studies,  if  the  phonograms  have  been  thoroughly  learned, 
if  frequently  met  groups  of  letters,  as  lion,  have  been  drilled 
upon  until  absolutely  familiar  to  the  children,  if  diacritical 
and  accent  marks  have  been  in  constant  use,  difficulties  in 
pronunciation  are  about  ready  to  slip  away  into  the  past. 
The  teacher  must  be  the  guide  and  help  a  year  or  two  longer, 
then  the  dictionary  will  become  the  proper  tool  for  the 
student's  own  use.  It  is  surprising  how  much  the  children 
can  learn  to  do  in  these  first  two  years  and  how  keenly  they 
enjoy  their  progress  and  accomplishments. 

In  the  second  grade  there  is  a  variety  of  exercises ;  among 
them  are  many  lists  of  words,  marked  and  unmarked,  for 


WORD   STUDY 


III 


spelling  lessons;  sentences  in  which  the  words  for  spelling 
are  used  (I.)  ;  illustrative  use  of  certain  affixes  (II.)  ;  add- 
ing ing  (HI.)  ;  lists  formed  upon  some  given  root  syllable 

(IV.). 

I. 

Polliwogs  eat  insects. 

They  become  frogs. 

Buttercups  are  now  in  bloom. 

The  teacher  has  given  me  a  pencil. 

Our  lessons  keep  us  busy. 

I  have  been  reading  a  fairy  story. 

Have  you  much  work? 

II. 


Ish  means  like. 
child  ish 
self  ish 
fool  ish 
salt  ish 
girl  ish 
baby  ish 
boy  ish 
clown  ish 


Less  means  without.      Un  means  not. 


mother  less 
sleep  less 
home  less 
father  less 
care  less 
friend  less 
pain  less 
hope  less 


un  like 
un  done 
un  told 
un  able 
un  buttoned 
un  written 


means  one  who.       Er  means  more. 


teach  er 
play  er 
danc  er 
dig  ger 
sweep  er 
catch  er 


hard  er 
sweet  er 
near  er 
firm  er 
clos  er 
high  er 


THIRD  YEAR  GRADE 

Material  for  word  study,  either  as  phonics  or  spelling, 
constantly  surrounds  the  teacher;  in  fact,  it  is  so  abundant 
that  the  whole  subject  is  frequently  neglected  because  the 


112  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

task  of  classification  and  systematic  use  seems  too  vast. 
First  of  all,  it  is  the  common  words  that  should  be  made 
usable  for  the  children  in  as  simple  and  practical  a  manner 
as  possible,  for  the  most  frequent  mistakes  in  pronuncia- 
tion and  spelling  are  in  the  words  that  are  in  most  general 
use.  How  frequently  one  hears  "  ud  "  for  would ;  "  I'd  a 
done  it,"  for  I'd  have  done  it ;  "  callin' "  for  calling,  and 
so  on  through  an  endless  list  of  pronunciations,  while  the 
number  of  misspelled  words  is  equally  perplexing.  There 
is  no  way  of  eliminating  these  errors  except  by  vigorous, 
unremitting  treatment,  and  the  earlier  it  is  begun  the  bet- 
ter. If  the  word  work  and  the  language  lessons  have  been 
well  done  during  the  first  two  years,  the  pupils  are  already 
struggling  consciously  with  several  of  the  most  flagrant 
errors,  and  an  excellent  basis  has  been  laid  for  correct  Eng- 
lish. These  word  studies  give  definite  reasons  for  the  re- 
quired pronunciations  and  spellings,  and  association  with 
other  words  aids  greatly  in  memorizing  forms  and  sounds. 
English  is  a  difficult  language  to  learn  under  the  best  of 
circumstances,  and  children  need  all  the  aid  that  can  be 
derived  from  carefully  planned  word  lessons. 

The  third  grade  begins  with  definitely  arranged  reviews 
of  the  sounds  learned  in  the  preceding  grades,  listed  in 
words  adapted  to  the  growing  powers  of  the  pupils.  The 
new  words  of  a  day's  lesson  are  put  upon  the  board,  with 
the  syllables  indicated  and  the  sounds  marked  for  pronun- 
ciation wherever  it  is  deemed  necessary. 
Drills 

The  children  are  drilled  upon  these  lists  so 

that  mispronunciations  are  avoided  with  many  pupils  and 
words.  A  constant  watch  is  kept  for  words  that  in  every- 
day conversations  are  mispronounced  or  slurred  by  the 


WORD   STUDY  113 

children,  and  these  are  drilled  upon  frequently.  Five  min- 
utes of  such  drill  every  day  of  the  year  will  work  wonders 
in  correct  pronunciation,  and,  incidentally,  in  spelling  also; 
for  words  clearly  written  and  properly  enunciated  accord- 
ing to  syllables  are  not  ordinarily  misspelled  except  by  very 
careless  pupils. 

Spelling  is  carefully  attended  to  in  both  oral  and  written 
exercises  every  day.    Words  are  given  in  lists  and  in  sen- 
tences.    Pupils  are  held  responsible  for  the 
Spelling 

words  found  in  the  day's  lessons,  so  that 
the  habit  of  noticing  new  words  and  of  retaining  old  ones 
is  constantly  encouraged.  Compound  words  that  do  not 
require  the  hyphen  are  included  in  the  spelling  lists,  for 
this  is  a  much  abused  part  of  correct  word  writing.  Some 
new  affixes  are  studied,  such  as:  under,  underdone;  well, 
welcome ;  ly,  manly,  nicely ;  er  (one  who) ,  worker,  builder ; 
ed,  learned,  shouted.  This  material  should  be  carefully 
listed  by  the  teacher,  so  that  the  work  for  the  month  or  the 
year  is  in  mind.  It  varies  greatly  according  to  the  devel- 
opment of  the  class,  but  it  is  always  to  be  found  in  abund- 
ance in  the  subjects  read  or  studied  by  the  children. 

FOURTH  YEAR  GRADE 

During  this  year  the  pupils  become  acquainted  with  all 
divisions  of  letters, — vowels,  consonants,  their  various 
sounds,  and  their  combinations  into  digraphs  and  diph- 
thongs; also  with  such  equivalent  sounds  as  a  in  ate  and 
ey  in  they;  e  in  even  and  i  in  machine.  Calling  attention 
to  these  points  and  making  a  few  lists  of  illustrative  words 
obviates  many  of  the  difficulties  of  spelling.  The  simple 
rules  of  phonics,  to  be  found  in  any  good  manual  on  the 
9 


114  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

subject,  are  made  familiar  to  the  children  before  the  end 
of  the  year.  They  are  not  thoroughly  learned,  it  is  true, 
for  the  pupils  are  not  ready  for  this  step,  but  there  is  formed 
with  them  that  general  acquaintance  which  must  precede 
later  drills  for  possession  and  mastery. 

Oral  spelling  is  given  every  day  in  the  week,  if  time  per- 
mits. In  addition  to  words  from  the  adopted  speller,  lists 
Spelling  are  made  fr°m  tne  various  studies,  from 

daily  conversations,  and,  very  insistently, 
of  such  words  as  have  been  generally  misspelled  by  the 
pupils.  Only  constant  diligence  and  patience  on  the  part 
of  both  teacher  and  pupils  can  make  good  spellers  of  many 
children.  English  is  full  of  phonetic  etymological  puzzles. 

Prefixes  and  suffixes  are  given  occasional  lessons,  based 
upon  the  vocabularies  of  the  children  and  upon  any  other 
source  from  which  lists  of  practical  words 
Studies  can  ^e  built  up.     Common   roots  are  no- 

ticed,   thoughtfully    defined,    and    lists    of 
derivatives   made.     Even    some    roots    of    foreign    origin, 
especially  from  the  Latin,  occurring  in  words  frequently 
used,  are  studied,  thus  throwing  unexpected  light  on  mean- 
ings and  spellings.     If  these  exercises  are  kept  easily  within 
the  abilities  of  the  pupils,  they  are  very  helpful  for  adding 
to  the  vocabulary,  acquiring  a  correct  and  discriminating 
use  of  words,  and  fixing  accurate  spellings.     Lists  of  words  I 
are  marked  diacritically  by  the  pupils ;  the  syllables  are  in-  I 
dicated.     Simple  rules  of  phonics  that  have  already  been  j 
drilled  upon  in  preceding  years  are  learned;  such  as  the  J 
value  of  final  e  in  pin,  pine ;  bat,  bate ;  nap,  nape. 

An  adopted  text-book  is  used  in  the  spelling,  but  words  j 
are  also  chosen  from  all  other  subjects.    Dictated  sentences,  ] 


WORD   STUDY 

two  or  three  in  every  lesson,  and  about  thirty  words  form 
the  daily  assignment.  Lists  of  misspelled  words  are  kept 

by  both  teacher  and  pupils  for  weekly  re- 
Spelling 

views.     From  two  to  four  times  a  month 

lessons  in  homonyms  are  given,  consisting  of  ten  or  twelve 
sentences  dictated  by  the  teacher  or  the  pupils.  Several 
rules  for  spelling  are  developed  during  the  year.  Some 
may  be  entirely  new  to  the  pupils,  others  may  be  the  con- 
summation of  the  inductive  reasoning  of  preceding  months 
or  years. 

In  word  analysis,  simple  affixes,  in,  un,  a,  less,  ness,  ish, 
let,  are  used  in  forming  new  words ;  or  words  having  these 
prefixes  or  suffixes  are  chosen  from  the  lessons,  their  mean- 
ings are  given,  and  other  words  having  the  same  syllable 
are  suggested. 

Some  fourth  grade  analyses  of  words  are  also  shown 
here. 

a. 

delight  ful  full  of  delight 

leaf  less  without  a  leaf 

a  fire  on  fire 

plumb  er  one  who  plumbs 

un  happy  not  happy 

un  certain  not  certain 

use  less  without  use 

use  ful  full  of  use 

a  shore  on  shore 

b. 

bright  ness       the  state  of  being  bright 
sad  ness  the  state  of  being  sad 


Il6  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

joyful  ness       the  state  of  being  joyful 
full  ness  the  state  of  being  full 

c. 

Words  ending  in  e  preceded  by  a  consonant  should  have 
the  last  letter  dropped  on  taking  a  suffix  beginning  with  a 
vowel. 

bite  biting 

come  coming 

give  giving 

have  having 

hope  hoping 

live  living 

lose  losing 

FIFTH  YEAR  GRADE 

The  pupils  are  now  old  enough  to  develop  understand- 
ingly  and  usably  the  most  important  of  the  rules  for  spell- 
ing, a  step  rendered  easier  by  the  work  in  phonics  and  word 
analysis  that  has  been  done  in  the  lower  grades.  Many 
of  the  rules  will  be  but  wording  and  putting  into  easily 
remembered  form  the  practice  of  the  preceding  years. 

Systematically  arranged  drills  are  found  in 
Course  in 
Spelling  text-books   on   spelling,   where   words   are 

usually  classified  as  to  sound,  form,  use, 
and  meaning.  These  lists  are  supplemented  constantly  by 
words  selected  from  the  various  subjects  studied,  and  from 
conversation  vocabularies.  The  dictionary  now  becomes 
the  frequent  aid  of  the  pupils  in  spelling  and  pronouncing, 
and  careful  training  should  be  given  in  the  use  of  this  valu- 
able language  tool. 


WORD   STUDY  1 1/ 

The  children  are  probably  acquainted  with  many  of  the 

familiar  prefixes,  suffixes,  and  roots.     Pleasure  and  interest 

in  such  lessons  is  fostered  if  they  are  ac- 

Analysis  companied  by  short  talks  on  the  people  and 

the  countries  from  which  the  words  came, 

showing  that  words,  like  people,  can  travel  long  distances, 

bearing  with  them  lasting  traces  of  their  original  homes. 

By  the  time  the  child  has  finished  the  fifth  grade,  he  should 

be  familiar  with  the  following: 

Anglo-Saxon  prefixes :  A,  after,  all,  al,  be,  for,  fore,  mis, 
out,  un,  under,  well,  wel.  Suffixes:  ar,  ard,  dom,  ed  (d 
or  t),  er,  est,  ful,  head  or  hood,  ing,  ish,  less,  ly,  ness,  s  or 
es  in  plural,  's  or  '  in  possessive,  some. 

Latin  prefixes :  ab,  ad  (with  the  change  of  letter  depend- 
ent upon  the  first  letter  of  the  root  to  which  it  is  affixed), 
bene,  circum,  contra,  subter,  re,  semi.  Suffixes:  able,  ess, 
eer,  er. 

Greek  prefixes:  ex,  hemi,  tele.     Suffixes:  ist,  ise,  ize. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  year  the  pupils  purchase 
their  own  dictionaries,  and  they  also  have  free  access  to  the 
unabridged  edition.     They  must  be  taught 
Dictionary  ^ow  to  use  these  new  books,  which,  with- 

out instruction,  long  remain  sealed,  like 
the  prophecies  of  old.  The  teacher  calls  attention  to  the 
alphabetical  arrangement  of  the  words,  then  to  the  second 
letter,  ba  before  bea,  be  before  bi ;  then  to  the  third  letter, 
bar  before  bat.  The  children  are  trained  to  open  quickly 
to  the  desired  place,  every  one  in  his  own  dictionary,  by 
asking  for  A,  for  M,  for  any  section,  and  even  for  first  or 
last  part  of  the  section  devoted  to  any  letter.  This  may 
seem  almost  childish  training,  but  one  only  needs  to  com- 


Il8  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

pare  the  awkwardness  and  helplessness  of  some  people  with 
the  accuracy  and  rapidity  of  others,  to  realize  the  effect  of 
training  and  habit  in  handling  the  dictionary.  The  dia- 
critical markings  may  seem  difficult  at  first  even  to  a  child 
trained  in  their  use  in  class ;  but  a  little  explanation  makes 
them  perfectly  clear.  The  use  of  the  typical  words  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pages  should  also  be  noticed. 

The  many  definitions,  varying  from  one  another  by 
shades  of  meaning,  are  puzzling  to  the  children ;  so  also  are 
the  many  abbreviations.  A  verb  may  be  followed  by  v.,  t., 
imp.,  and  pp. ;  then  come  the  languages  through  which  it 
has  passed  into  the  English.  All  of  this  must  be  explained, 
if  not  to  fifth  grade  pupils,  then  to  those  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced grades.  The  definitions  need  to  be  considered,  so 
that  the  children  can  discriminate  among  them;  and  atten- 
tion should  be  called  to  the  help  afforded  by  the  punctua- 
tion. Occasional  lessons  should  be  given  in  definite  ex- 
planation of  the  dictionary.  "  The  unabridged  dictionary 
is  a  much  neglected  book,"  but,  by  such  studies,  it  takes 
its  place  as  one  of  the  most  available  and  practical  aids  to 
the  student. 

SIXTH,  SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES 

Throughout  the  last  three  years  of  the  grammar  grades 
the  rules  for  spelling  are  developed  inductively  as  rapidly 

as    they    can    be    illustrated    satisfactorily, 
Spelling 

comprehended,    and    remembered.    As    in 

the  preceding  grades,  material  is  found  in  the  assigned  text- 
book, the  daily  lessons  in  all  subjects,  and  the  new  words 
noticed  in  the  vocabularies  of  the  children.  The  pupils  are 
trained  to  notice  constantly  the  spelling  of  new  words  found 
in  the  reading.  In  word  analysis  an  accepted  textbook  is 


WORD  STUDY  119 

completed,  or  such  a  portion  of  it  as  is  considered  suitable 
for  grammar  grades.  New  work  is  always  presented 
through  use,  leading  out  into  generalizations,  the  forma- 
tion of  rules,  and  the  classification  of  knowledge. 

There  follow  a  few  papers  from  pupils,  giving  a  slight 
view  of  the  work  done. 

The  various  lists  for  the  sixth  grade  are  of  the  same 
general  nature  as  those  in  the  fifth  grade.  Some  of  the 
sentences  illustrative  of  the  use  of  words  are  here  given. 

When  Scipio  died  he  left  orders  that  his  bones  should 
not  rest  in  a  city  which  had  proved  so  ungrateful  as  Rome. 

Cato  ended  every  one  of  his  speeches  by  saying,  "  Car- 
thage must  be  destroyed." 

Cornelia's  jewels  were  her  two  sons.  She  was  the 
daughter  of  Scipio  Africanus. 

"  Run  for  your  lives !  "  said  Horatius,  "  I  will  keep  the 
bridge." 

Gnats  and  mosquitos  are  very  troublesome  insects. 
They  bother  us  in  the  summer. 

The  governor  is  the  chief  officer  of  the  state. 

The  seventh  grade  notebooks  contain  drills  in  spelling, 
definitions,  sound  marking,  homonyms,  synonyms,  and  a 
variety  of  lessons  in  world  analysis,  some  of  which  follow. 

I. 

HOMONYMS 

I  heard  the  lowing  of  a  herd  of  cattle. 
There  are  their  books  where  they  were  put  by  the  chil- 
dren. 


I2O  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

Sweating  through  every  pore,  the  workmen  pour  the 
melted  iron  into  the  molds. 

A  hale  and  hearty  old  man  was  hurrying  along  in  the 
midst  of  the  rain  and  hail. 

The  rest  may  rest  while  I  wrest  the  prize  from  him  who 
would  win  it. 

II. 

USE  OF   INDICATED   WORDS 

Conrad  feigned  to  be  a  friend  of  Richard,  but  he  was  a 
traitor. 

The  vein  in  his  hand  broke. 

These  aquatic  flowers  are  not  very  pretty. 

He  came  with  an  invincible  army. 

III. 

WORD  ANALYSIS 
a.  Root  word 

The  Latin  root  pes  means  a  foot.    Fed  has  the  same 
meaning.     Many  words  are  formed  on  this  root. 

ped  al  belonging  to  the  foot 

bi  ped  two  footed  animal 

quadru  ped  four  footed  animal 

ped  dlar  one  who  travels  afoot 

ex  ped  ite  to  free  the  foot 

ex  ped  ition  the  act  of  expediting 

im  ped  iment  hindrance 

The  pedestrian  stopped  at  our  house  for  refreshments. 
The  men  sent  an  expedition  to  the  New  York  colonies. 


WORD  STUDY  121 

IV. 

WORD  ANALYSIS 

b.  Prefix 

The  Latin  verb  cedere  means  to  yield,  to  go.     Cede  and 
ceed  are  forms  of  the  verb  cedere. 

ac  cede  to  yield 

con  cede  to  go  with 

ex  ceed  to  go  beyond 

inter  cede  to  go  between 

pre  cede  to  go  before 

pro  ceed  to  go  forward 

re  cede  to  go  back 

sue  ceed  to  go  beyond  any  one  else 

Harvey  Birch  wished  the  Americans  to  succeed  in  war. 
Captain  Dunwoodie  was  interceding  for  Captain  Whar- 
ton. 

V. 

WORD  ANALYSIS 

c.  Suffixes 

Judge,  verb,  to  determine. 
Judge,  noun,  one  who  determines. 
Just,  adjective,  lawful. 

judge  ship  office  of  a  judge 

judg  ment  being  judged 

just  ify  to  make  right 

just  ness  the  quality  of  being  just 

just  ly  lawfully 


122 


METHODS   IN   TEACHING 


PREFIXES 

pre  judge         to  judge  beforehand 
ad  judge          to  judge  to 
re  judge  to  judge  again 

un  just  not  just 

ad  just  to  make  right,  to  make  just 

The  above  lessons  are  given  without  change  from  the 
notebook  of  the  pupil,  showing  the  seventh  grade  concep- 
tion of  the  meaning  of  the  words  as  gained  from  roots  and 
affixes.  Prefixes  and  suffixes  have  been  studied  separately 
and  in  connection  with  simple  words  ever  since  the  fifth 
grade,  so  that  their  meanings  as  used  in  the  above  exercises 
are  not  touched  upon.  They  belong  to  the  knowledge  that 
is  already  fixed.  New  affixes  are  taken  up  from  time  to 
time  as  the  occasion  demands.  Later  language  studies  will, 
of  course,  broaden  all  this  acquaintance  with  words. 

From  the  many  lists  in  the  notebook  of  an  eighth  grade 
pupil  the  following  uncorrected  exercises  are  chosen,  illus- 
trating studies  in  homonyms,  use  of  words  in  sentences, 
spelling  and  defining.  Occasional  lists  are  made  of  won 
frequently  mispronounced;  these  are  carefully  marked 
to  sounds  of  letters  and  accented  syllables. 

I. 


precurser 

accessory 

itinerary 

alleviate 

hypocrisy 


SPELLING  AND  DEFINING 

one  who  runs  before  (precursor) 

have  access  to 

from  place  to  place 

to  lessen 

deceive 


WORD  STUDY 


123 


enunciate 

indelible 

Apennines 

asphaulton 

cognizant 

recommend 

Philippines 


act  of  enunciating 
not  erasable 
mountains  of  Italy 

understood 
give  authority  of 
islands 

II. 


Alaska  was  formerly  isolated. 
He  will  lubricate  the  wheel. 
They  manipulated  the  books. 
He  meditated  deeply. 
She  will  participate  in  the  event. 
Electricity  is  a  subtle  power. 
The  school  suppressed  a  laugh. 
She  assumed  a  dignified  air. 
The  guide  preceeded  the  party. 
They  relinquished  all  claims. 


(asphaltum) 


(Preceded.) 


Gamble  at  cards. 

To  gambol  on  the  grass. 

The  soil  is  barren. 

A  German  baron. 

Two  quarts. 

A  vein  of  quartz. 

A  minor  matter. 

A  coal  miner. 

A  gilt  frame. 

To  confess  a  guilt. 


III. 

To  sell  at  profit. 
A  weather  prophet. 
A  boiled  carrot. 
It  weighs  a  carat. 
An  easy  lesson. 
Pain  will  lessen. 
To  bathe  in  the  surf. 
The  serf  was  set  free. 
A  broad  base. 
A  bass  voice. 


PART  II 
ARITHMETIC 


CHAPTER  VIII 

GENERAL    AIMS:     INTRODUCTORY    THOUGHTS;     SUM- 
MARY OF  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  A  COURSE 
IN  ARITHMETIC 

Arithmetic  in  the  public  schools  should  lead  to  definite 
results    along    two    lines, — knowledge    and    power.     The 

knowledge  gained  should  be  a  sufficient 
Knowledge 

arithmetical   basis    for   any   occupation   or 

profession  entered  by  the  pupil  after  leaving  school.  It 
should  include  the  fundamental  operations  with  integers; 
fractions,  both  common  and  decimal;  percentage,  with  its 
application  to  reckoning  interest.  An  important  element 
of  this  work  is  the  recognition  of  number  as  the  "  tool  of 
measurement "  in  a  concrete  study  of  lengths,  areas,  vol- 
umes, values,  and  other  relations  liable  to  arise  in  after 
life.  These  topics,  with  an  elementary  study  of  accounts 
and  common  business  forms,  furnish  ample  material  for  the 
knowledge  element  of  the  subject.  By  the  end  of  the 
eighth  school  year  all  pupils  should  be  thoroughly  grounded 
in  the  essentials  just  mentioned. 

Arithmetic  offers  abundant  opportunity  for  training  in 
habits  of  logical  thought  and  exact  statement;  while  the 

ability  to  form  a  clear-cut  mental  picture 
Power 

of  the  quantity  represented  by  any  num- 
ber, integral  or  fractional,  is  so  important  that  it  should 
be  developed  constantly.  Its  value  is  not  confined  to  arith- 
metic, it  belongs  to  all  subjects.  All  judgments  and  infer- 

127 


128  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

ences  should  be  expressed  completely  and  accurately.  In 
this  development  of  mental  power  no  factor  is  of  greater 
consequence  than  the  solution  of  well  selected  problems. 

Measurement  is  the  origin  of  the  number  idea.     Conse- 
quently, from  the  first,  the  child  is  led  to  measure  some- 
thing, to  compute  through  measurements, 
mentg  and  to  think  in  terms  of  known  value.     He 

is  to  think  as  well  as  to  measure,  for 
"  thought  is  the  main  thing  in  mathematics  as  well  as  in 
language."  No  matter  whether  the  child  is  considering 
length,  breadth,  time,  space,  weight,  or  value,  he  can  ex- 
press his  thought  in  figures ;  but  he  must  never  be  permitted 
to  work  with  the  figures  alone,  separated  from  the  magni- 
tude that  is  represented.  To  do  so,  is  to  deal  with  the 
abstract,  an  unnecessary,  if  not  an  impossible  feat  for  the 
immature  mind.  If  the  child's  difficulties  are  to  disappear, 
he  must  see,  actually  or  mentally,  the  thing  that  is  to  be 
measured  or  computed.  Dimension  measurements  are 
drawn  in  some  prominent  place  in  the  schoolroom,  on  the 
wall,  on  the  board,  where  there  can  be  marked  off  and 
preserved  before  the  eyes  of  the  pupils  an  inch,  a  foot,  a 
yard,  a  square  inch,  a  square  foot,  a  square  yard.  The 
dimensions  of  the  room,  the  building,  the  yard,  are  meas- 
ured and  frequently  mentioned.  The  length  of  a  city  block 
is  learned  in  feet  or  yards;  the  distance  to  some  near-by 
public  building  is  spoken  of  as  a  certain  portion  of  a  mile ; 
some  well  known  object  a  mile  away  is  located.  These 
distances  are  referred  to  frequently,  as  is  also  some  frac- 
tion or  multiple  of  them,  until  their  value  is  well  recognized 
by  the  pupils.  The  children  estimate  and  then  measure 
accessible  distances.  They  draw  lines  of  estimated  length, 


GENERAL  AIMS  1 29 

and  then  measure  them  to  see  how  nearly  correct  their 
efforts  are.  This  sense  of  magnitude  is  kept  before  the 
pupils  for  years,  if  necessary,  until  accuracy  is  gained. 
There  is  no  need  of  permitting  the  exercises  to  become 
monotonous,  if  the  teacher  only  uses  ingenuity  in  varying 
the  processes  employed.  The  value  of  these  actual  meas- 
urements is  immediately  apparent  if  even  advanced  pupils, 
who  have  not  had  such  training,  are  asked  to  draw  lines  of 
given  lengths,  or  to  estimate  areas,  widths,  or  capacities. 
They  guess  wildly,  showing  that  the  abstract  figures,  not 
the  actual  values,  have  absorbed  their  efforts. 

Training  in  analysis  begins  early  in  the  course,  starting 
with  the  simple  reasoning  from  one  to  many  and  from  the 

many  to  one.     When  a  problem  is  stated, 
Analysis 

the  first   requisite   is   to   find  the   starting 

point;  the  second,  to  see  the  steps  by  which  the  end  is  to 
be  gained, — multiplication,  division,  addition.  The  child  is 
not  permitted  to  start  his  analysis  until  these  points  are 
assured,  for  not  until  the  process  is  seen  clearly  can  it  be 
accurately  performed.  There  is  no  objection  to  the  indi- 
vidual methods  of  analysis  developed  by  this  kind  of  train- 
ing, provided  clearness  and  accuracy  are  retained.  More- 
over, if  the  pupil's  expressions  are  awkward  and  inapt,  he 
is  glad,  through  the  teacher's  guidance,  to  adopt  easier  and 
more  set  forms  of  speech  usual  to  analysis. 

Oral  work  is  so  important  that  from  one-third  to  one- 
half  the  time  for  arithmetic  is  devoted  to  mental  training. 

Every  new  topic  is  introduced  orally,  and 
Arithmetic  written    work    supplements    the    oral    only 

when   the  numbers   are   too   large   or  the 
processes  too  involved  to  be  grasped  readily.    The  pencil 
10 


I3O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

is  used  only  on  a  problem  that  can  not  be  solved  without 
its  aid.  Pupils  who  understand  the  principles  of  arithmetic 
and  can  apply  them  to  oral  problems  have  little  difficulty 
with  arithmetic.  The  majority  of  the  problems  contain 
small  numbers.  Applicants  for  admission  to  our  high 
schools  and  normal  schools  fail  constantly  on  problems  deal- 
ing with  numbers  of  one  figure.  Pupils  are  trained  to  give 
and  to  solve  original  problems.  The  thoughtful  reading 
of  problems  is  emphasized  in  all  grades.  Pupils  are  led  to 
forecast  results,  so  that  unreasonable  answers  are  at  once 
noted.  In  all  grades  many  problems  are  given  in  which 
the  processes  to  be  performed  are  indicated  by  signs. 

Many  of  the  problems  given  in  all  the  grades  are  based 
upon  prices  of  labor  and  material,  for  which  teacher  and 
pupils  secure  data  from  the  store,  the  market,  the  mill,  the 
post  office,  the  lumber  yard,  the  wood  and  coal  yard,  the  in 
surance  agency,  the  tax  collector,  the  transportation  agent 
The  various  ways  of  making  change,  of  levying  a  stree 
assessment,  of  collecting  taxes,  of  marking  goods,  of  depos 
iting  money  in  a  bank,  and  of  remitting  money  are  inves 
tigated. 

Business  forms,  especially  letters,  receive  much  attention 
All  pupils  above  the  fourth  grade  should  be  able  to  writ 
a  thoughtful  letter,  correct  as  to  form,  spelling,  punctua 
tion,  and  capitalization  in  the  superscription  and  conclusion 
Tax  receipts,  insurance  policies,  money  order  blanks 
checks,  bills,  receipts,  notes,  and  other  business  forms  and 
papers  in  daily  use  are  brought  into  class  for  study  an< 
comparison. 

In  all  grades  a  minimum  amount  of  required  work  is  as-j 
signed   for  all  the   members  of  the   class,   and   sufficient) 


GENERAL  AIMS 

optional  exercises  to  keep  the  most  proficient  busy.  The 
required  work  covers  all  the  essential  principles;  and  the 
elective  work  is  made  interesting,  broad  in  its  scope,  prac- 
tical, and  closely  related  to  home  and  business  affairs. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  results  obtained  in  arithmetic  in 
many  schools  are  not  at  all  commensurate  with  the  time 

given  the  subject.     No  one  doubts  the  jus- 
Assignments 

tice  of  the  criticism.     Consequently,  fewer 

and  more  practical  topics  are  assigned  the  various  grades 
in  our  schools,  and  the  time  given  to  arithmetic  is  increased 
in  every  grade  above  the  second.  The  elimination  of  obso- 
lete and  impractical  matter,  combined  with  an  increase  in 
time,  should  lead  to  better  results,  more  particularly  if  the 
following  points  are  borne  in  mind  by  the  teacher: 

Cultivate  the  spirit  of  self-reliance  in  the  pupils. 

Give  mental  arithmetic  its  due  proportion  of  time. 

Lead  pupils  to  think  of  the  conditions  of  the  problems 
before  "  figuring." 

Give  full  attention  to  development  lessons  and  to  object- 
ive work. 

Lead  the  pupils  by  accurate  observation  into  clear  thought 
and  exact  statement. 

Have  a  definite  plan  for  every  lesson. 

Do  not  give  conundrums. 

Require  the  pupils  to  think  more  and  to  depend  less  upon 
the  teacher. 

Teaching  arithmetic  has  passed  through  so  many  tor- 
mented phases  of  being  that  considerable  valuable  informa- 
tion is  to  be  found  in  the  way  in  which  a  modern  course  of 
study  has  come  into  being.  This  is  so  clearly  shown  in  an 
article  by  Superintendent  Barr  of  the  Stockton  schools, 


132  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

published   in   "  Primary   Education,"   January,    1904,   that 
part  of  it  is  here  reproduced. 

"  In  May,  1892,  a  careful  study  of  the  conditions  in  the 
Stockton  schools  was  begun  to  determine  just  what  results 

were  being  secured  in  each  subject  in  the 
Arithmetic  J 

la  I8ga  school  course,  the  time  given  to  the  sub- 

jects, the  grade  when  the  pupils  begin  to 
leave  school.  Briefly,  here  are  some  of  the  facts  shown  by 
this  investigation: 

"  i.  From  one- third  to  one-half  of  the  school  day  was 
given  to  arithmetic  in  grades  one,  two,  and  three. 

"  2.  In  the  judgment  of  the  majority  of  the  teachers  the 
pupils  were  not  well  prepared  in  the  work. 

"  3.  The  children  could  not  read  many  of  the  problems 
that  they  were  expected  to  solve,  nor  could  they  apply  with 
a  fair  degree  of  readiness  the  number  facts  learned  to  sim- 
ple problems  taken  from  their  own  experiences. 

"4.  In  general,  the  training  in  other  subjects,  especially 
in  reading  and  language,  had  not  kept  pace  with  the  train- 
ing in  arithmetic. 

"  5.  Practically  all  pupils  remained  in  school  at  least  foui 
years. 

"  Obviously,  the  problem  for  1893,  even  from  the  stand- 
point of  arithmetic,  was  to  emphasize  reading  and 
guage  so  that  the  pupils  could  grasp  the  thought  in  the 
problems  to  be  studied.  This  naturally  led  to  the  cutting 
down  of  the  time  given  arithmetic;  yet,  to  the  surprise  of 
all,  the  classes  were  better  prepared  in  that  subject  at  the 
close  of  the  year  than  before. 

"  This  happy  result  led  to  the  further  emphasis  of  read- 
ing and  language  in  1894  and  to  a  further  cutting  of  the 


GENERAL  AIMS  133 

time  given  arithmetic,  and  again  did  the  work  in  arithmetic 
improve." 

"  In  1895,  all  formal  instruction  in  arithmetic  was  omitted 
from  the  first  half  of  the  school  year,  the  time  so  gained 

being  given  to  reading  and  language,  based 
Incidental  ,  1  - 

on  nature  study  and  on  stories  drawn  from 


history  and  literature.  In  1896,  instruc- 
tion in  number  work  was  made  incidental  throughout  the 
first  school  year.  In  1900,  the  incidental  period  was  ex- 
tended to  include  the  first  half  of  the  second  school  year. 

"  The  results  secured  by  the  omission  of  formal  instruc- 
tion in  arithmetic  in  the  first  term  of  1895,  in  the  second  in 
1896,  in  the  third  in  1900,  showed  clearly  (at  least  to  the 
observers  in  Stockton),  that  other  subjects  are  much  better 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  the  pupils  during  the  first  year  and 
a  half  of  school  life  than  is  arithmetic.  The  final  results 
in  1903  have  also  demonstrated  that,  compared  with  1892, 
the  pupils,  by  the  close  of  the  third  school  year,  can  not 
only  read  better,  spell  better,  use  their  mother  tongue  bet- 
ter, but  that  they  are  fully  as  well  prepared  in  the  mechan- 
ics of  arithmetic,  and  are  far  readier  in  the  application  of 
what  they  have  learned. 

"  In  1903,  the  following  is  the  time  devoted  to  arith- 
metic : 

"  First  school  year,   instruction   incidental. 
Arithmetic 
Igo3  "  First  term,  second  school  year,  instruc- 

tion incidental. 

"  Second  term,  second  school  year,  thirty  minutes  daily. 
"  Third  school  year,  sixty  minutes  daily. 
"  In  the  primary  grades  of  the   Stockton   schools,  the 
pupils  are  grouped  into  small  sections  for  the  study  of  such 


134  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

essential  subjects  as  reading  and  arithmetic.     The  number 
of  sections  is  determined  by  the  needs  of  the  class,  the 
teacher  being  the  judge.     With  a  class  of 
Work  forty   pupils   the   number   of   sections   will 

vary  from  three  to  six  and  even  to  eight. 
Not  only  do  the  number  of  groups  vary  in  the  different 
rooms,  but  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  group  and  the 
time  given  to  the  group  vary  as  well.  In  the  drill  work 
the  group  usually  gathers  around  the  teacher,  and  the  rest 
of  the  class  is  given  carefully  prepared  busy  work  in  arith- 
metic, in  drawing,  or  in  language.  This  method  not  only 
enables  the  teacher  to  develop  the  child  along  the  line  of 
his  needs,  but  it  leads  to  self-reliant  habits  of  study  on  the 
part  of  the  pupils  at  their  seats. 

"  The  following  aims  have  been  kept  constantly  in  mind 
in  teaching  arithmetic  in  the  primary  grades  in  the  Stock- 
ton schools:  i.  The  securing  of  accuracy  in 
Aimg  all  mechanical  processes.     2.  The  applica- 

tion of  the  number  facts  learned,  first  to 
the  experiences  of  the  child,  later  to  other  experiences  that 
he  can  readily  grasp. 

"  The  incidental  work  of  the  first  three  terms  is  a  prep- 
aration for  the  later  systematic  study  of  arithmetic.     Only 
as  the  child  feels  the  need  of  number  in 

Thc  expressing  the  relations  that  arise  in  his 

Incidental  t     .  ,  ..    ,  ,.          ,T 

Period  other  work,  is  number  supplied  him.     Na- 

ture study,  reading,  drawing,  and  other 
studies  furnish  ample  material  for  developing  the  number 
idea  during  these  three  terms.  With  their  interest  aroused 
through  seeing  the  need  of  number,  and  with  the  maturity 


GENERAL  AIMS  135 

that  has  come  through  the  three  terms'  work,  the  children 
are  eager  for  number  work. 

"  Without  seeking  to  exhaust  the  '  how  '  of  the  incidental 
period,  which  is  as  varied  as  are  the  individualities  of  the 
teachers  and  the  needs  of  the  classes,  the  following  are 
among  the  lines  of  work  taken  up  during  its  last  two 
years : 

"  As  number  deals  with  the  relations  of  quantity,  eye  and 
mind  are  trained  in  seeing  relations,  even  during  the  inci- 
dental period.     By  means  of  objects  in  the 
Comparisons  •• 

schoolroom,  of  lines  drawn  on  the  board, 

of  surfaces,  many  indefinite  comparisons  are  made.  As  the 
child's  number  sense  develops,  and  he  demands  more  defi- 
nite terms  than  '  longer,'  '  shorter,'  *  higher/  '  lower/  the 
common  measuring  units  are  introduced. 

"  All  pupils  are  supplied  with  rulers,  one  foot  long,  with 
sticks  of  various  lengths,  with  cardboard  squares,  one  inch 

square,  with  shoe  pegs,  etc.  In  the  work 
Measure-  ,  .  ,  r  f  , 

ments  in   drawing  the  use  of  the  ruler  is  soon 

mastered.  The  half,  the  fourth,  and  other 
simple  fractional  relations  are  as  easily  seen  and  mastered 
as  are  integral  relations.  The  following  exercises,  selected 
at  random,  will  give  an  idea  of  the  work  during  the  latter 
part  of  the  first  year  and  the  first  part  of  the  second : 

"  i.  Measure  sticks  and  draw  lines  as  long,  beginning 
with  one  inch. 

"2.  Measure  a  one-inch  cardboard  square.  Draw  it. 
Place  two  squares  side  by  side.  Measure  and  draw. 

"  3.  Place  sticks  so  as  to  form  a  square,  a  triangle,  an 
oblong.  Measure  and  draw. 


136  METHODS   IN    TEACHING 

"4.  Draw  a  line,  by  judging,  one  inch  long.  Measure 
and  correct. 

"  5.  Draw  a  one-inch  square,  by  judging.  Measure  and 
correct. 

"  6.  On  blackboard  draw,  by  judging,  lines  one  foot  long. 
Measure  and  correct. 

"  Children  enjoy  the  rhythm  of  counting.  As  they  are 
brought  into  touch  with  the  idea  of  number  through  com- 
parisons,  measuring,  games,  counting  is 
made  definite,  not  only  in  giving  the  con- 
secutive number  names,  but  in  applying  them  to  correspond- 
ing groups  of  objects.  The  children  are  led  to  recognize 
instantly  objects  in  unit  groups  of  two,  three,  four,  and  five. 
In  any  work  above  five  the  smaller  group  units  are  used. 
This  work  is  never  given  until  the  child  has  met  with  the 
number  again  and  again  in  his  nature  study,  drawing,  or 
other  studies.  In  training  in  the  instantaneous  recognition 
of  unit  groups,  all  sorts  of  objects  are  used, — dots,  lines, 
marbles,  flowers,  boys,  girls.  Care  is  taken  not  to  go  be- 
yond the  maturity  of  the  child.  In  most  cases  the  pupils, 
before  the  close  of  the  incidental  period,  can  count  by  ones 
and  tens  to  one  hundred  and  back." 

SECOND  YEAR  GRADE 
SECOND  TERM 

"  With  the  beginning  of  the  second  term  of  the  second 
school  year  formal  instruction  in  arithmetic  is  begun.     Ad- 
dition and  subtraction  are  taught  together; 
The  Steps 

multiplication,  division,  and  partition,  to- 
gether. During  the  first  three  months  of  the  term  addition 
and  subtraction  are  emphasized. 


GENERAL   AIMS  137 

"  Discovery,  through  observation  of  the  number  fact  to 
be  taught;  drill,  to  fix  the  fact  in  mind;  application  of  the 
fact  to  the  experiences  of  the  children  and  to  relations  that 
they  can  readily  grasp,  is  the  order  of  instruction  usually 
followed  in  taking  up  the  formal  study  of  number.  At  this 
time  the  utmost  skill  of  the  teacher  is  required  to  know  the 
content  of  the  child's  mind.  When  the  child  says  that  4 
and  3  are  7,  for  instance,  has  he  imaged  4,  3,  and  their  sum, 
7  ?  Does  he  see  clearly  the  relation  that  4  and  3  bear  to  7 
or  has  he,  parrot-like,  repeated  a  sentence  without  meaning 
to  him?  Every  pupil  is  led  to  discover  the  combinations 
and  separations  for  himself,  again  and  again,  until  he  knows 
them.  During  this  stage  of  the  work  the  figure  processes 
are  kept  in  the  background,  and  the  number  fact  is  dis- 
covered, applied,  and  emphasized.  Figures  are  then  intro- 
duced with  good  old-fashioned  drill  to  fix  the  facts. 

"  Training  in  the  instantaneous  recognition  of  the  unit 
groups,  2,  3,  4,  and  5,  is  continued.  Clear  mental  images 

are  formed.  By  this  grouping  the  pupils 
Imaging 

are  led  (assisted  by  objects  whenever  neces- 
sary), to  image  6  as  3  and  3;  7  as  5  and  2;  also  as  3  and 
4;  8  as  4  and  4,  and  as  5  and  3.  Subtraction  is  imaged  as 
readily  as  addition.  The  same  process  of  imaging  in 
groups,  followed  by  persistent  drill,  is  used  in  taking  up  the 
work  in  multiplication,  division,  and  partition. 

"  As  soon  as  four  or  five  combinations  are  learned,  col- 
umn addition  is  begun.  In  this  work  great  care  is  taken 

by  the  teacher  in  preparing  exercises,  as  no 
Addition  combination  is  presented  that  the  children 

have  not  already  learned.  The  work  in 
counting  and  writing  numbers  is  continued  within  reason- 


138  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

able  limits,  seldom  extending  beyond  one  hundred.  The 
pupils  count  by  I's,  2's,  5's,  and  ID'S,  both  forwards  and 
backwards. 

"  In  applying  the  number  facts  learned,  such  common 
measuring  units  as  the  cent,  nickel,  dime;  inch,  foot,  yard, 

square  inch,  square  foot,  cubic  inch;  pint, 
Measuring 
Unitg  quart;  pound;  dozen,  are  constantly  used. 

In  so  far  as  possible,  the  measuring  units 
are  used  by  the  children  themselves.  Estimates  by  obser- 
vation and  verification  by  measurement  are  an  important 
factor  of  the  work.  Drawing  lines  and  surfaces  at  the 
blackboard,  modeling  at  the  sand  table,  stick  laying,  string- 
ing beads,  measuring  water  or  sand,  are  among  the  exer- 
cises that  may  be  noted  in  the  various  grades. 

"  The  following  from  a  second  year  plan  book  will  give 
an  idea  of  the  use  of  the  foot  rule  in  the  application  of  the 

number  facts  learned: 
*°  "  i.  Addition.     Measure  a  stick.     Draw 


a  line  one  inch  longer;  two  inches  longer. 

"  2.  Subtraction.  Measure  a  stick.  Draw  a  line  one 
inch  shorter;  two  inches  shorter. 

"  3.  Multiplication.  Take  two  sticks  equal  in  length. 
Draw  a  line  as  long  as  the  two  together.  As  long  as  three 
sticks.  Measure  a  cardboard  square.  Draw  an  oblong  as 
long  as  four  squares  ;  as  two. 

"  4.  Division.  Measure  a  stick.  Draw  as  many  one-inch 
lines  as  equal  it.  As  many  two-inch  lines. 

"  5.  Partition.  Measure  a  stick.  Draw  a  line  half  as 
long.  Draw  one  one-fourth  as  long.  One  and  one-half 
times  as  long. 


GENERAL  AIMS 


139 


"  6.  Estimates.    Draw  on  the  blackboard,  by  judgment,  a 
ic  one  foot  long.     Measure  and  correct.    Two  feet  long. 

[alf  a  foot  long.     Similar  simple  exercises  are  worked  out 

>r  other  measuring  units." 

THIRD  YEAR  GRADE 

"  In  the  third  school  year,  the  greater  portion  of  the  time 
during  the  first  term  of  five  months  is  devoted  to  addition 
and  subtraction.  Seeing,  memorizing,  applying,  these  are 
still  the  successive  steps  followed  in  presenting  the  work. 

"  Objects  are  used  occasionally,  but  only  when  the  chil- 
dren need  help  in  imaging  the  combinations  given.     A  re- 
view of  the  combinations  in  addition  and 
subtraction,  previously  given,  is  combined 
with  their  systematic  application  to  all  pos- 
ble  combinations  within  the  number  space  no.     As  sub- 
ction  is  but  the  inverse  of  addition,  the  two  are  corre- 
ed,  the  emphasis,  however,  being  placed  on  addition, 
ginning  with  the  combinations  2  and  3   (although  any 
,er  combination  will  do  as  well),  the  pupils  commence  the 
rmal  work  of  the  year  as  follows : 


The 
Combinations 


3333 

2       12      22      32 


2222 

3     13    23    33 


3 
102 


2 
I03 


then 


"  After  the  pupils  have  mastered  these  combinations,  the 


I4O  METHODS    IN    TEACHING 

work  is  reversed,  and  the  corresponding  combinations  in 
subtraction  are  taken  up. 

"  Simple  questions  are  now  given,  in  which  the  pupils 
are  led  to  apply  the  combinations  formed  with  2  and  3  to 
relations 'and  measurements  that  they  can  understand.  Re- 
turning to  the  combination  work,  the  next  step  taken  up 
is  with  5  (2  and  3)  and  4.  The  same  work  is  given  as  that 
indicated  with  2  and  3.  Column  addition  is  now  begun 
with  2,  3,  4.  Adding  10,  20,  30,  etc.,  to  the  2,  the  drill  is 
continued  until  the  pupils  can  add  the  columns  accurately 
and  quickly. 

"  The  third  combination  taken  is  9  and  3.  Here  the 
pupils  must  be  led  to  understand  the  increase  by  tens. 
After  taking  up  all  the  combinations  with  9  and  3  within 
the  number  space  no,  the  pupils  continue  the  drill  with 
column  addition,  taking  2,  3,  4,  3,  and  adding  successive 
tens  to  the  lower  figures  as  long  as  may  seem  best. 

"  The  multiplication  tables  are  developed  by  addition, 
generally  by  means  of  rectangles  or  circles  drawn  on  the 

board  and  divided  into  the  proper  number 
The 

Tables  °^  Parts  by  the  children.     Division  and  par- 

tition are  correlated  with  multiplication. 
When  the  child  learns  that  6X3  are  18,  and  that  3X6 
are  18,  he  can  readily  see  that  there  are  six  3's  and  three 
6's  in  18;  that  one-third  of  18  is  6,  and  one-sixth  of  18  is 
3;  also  that  two-thirds  of  18  are  12,  and  that  12  is  two- 
thirds  of  18.  When  the  children  see  how  any  particular 
table  is  formed,  they  are  drilled  in  it,  sometimes  by  se- 
quence, always  by  skipping  about,  until  they  know  it. 
"  Much  of  the  drill  work  in  multiplication  is  combined 


GENERAL   AIMS  14! 

with  addition.    This  is  frequently  done  with  the  more  dif- 
ficult   combinations    in    addition.     For    in- 
Addition  stance . 

w*th  2  X  0  -f-  7 ' — ' 

Multiplication 

3X9  +  7=  etc. 

In  real  life  a  large  part,  in  the  schoolroom  most,  of  our 
multiplication  is  combined  with  addition.  There  is  econ- 
omy both  of  time  and  effort  in  such  training,  as  well  as 
excellent  preparation  for  the  work  in  long  multiplication. 

"  A  thorough  drill  is  given  on  inexact  divisions,  not  only 
for  the  thought  involved,  but  as  a  preparation  for  short 
division.  As  soon  as  the  table  of  2's  is  completed  the  work 
is  begun  with  short  multiplication  and  short  division. 

"  In  the  application  of  the  number  facts  learned,  the  com- 
mon measuring  units  are  kept  before  the  children. 

Through  estimates  and  measurements  of 
Applied  f.  .  t. , 

Arithmetic  hnes,    surfaces,    solids,    and    other    magni- 

tudes coming  within  the  experiences  of  the 
pupils,  they  are  trained  in  seeing  relations,  both  integral 
and  fractional.  When  the  measuring  unit  can  not  be 
handled  by  the  pupils,  they  are  given  a  clear  mental  picture 
of  it.  For  instance,  it  is  a  mile  from  the  Court  House  to 
East  Street.  John  has  walked  the  mile  between  these 
points  in  thirteen  minutes;  Henry  has  covered  it  on  his 
bicycle  in  six  minutes.  In  giving  any  problem  involving 
miles,  it  is  always  related  to  some  particular  mile  taken  as 
a  unit. 

"  Children  like  to  draw,  to  make  things.  This  construc- 
tive faculty  is  made  use  of,  not  only  in  the  third  school  year, 


I42  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

but  in  the  first  and  second  as  well.     In  the  third  year  rect- 
angles are  drawn  by  measurements  in  developing  the  multi- 

plication tables.     Many  simple  problems  are 
Constructive 

given  for  blackboard  and  seat  work,  that  can 


be  solved  by  means  of  diagrams.  Simple 
exercises  in  drawing  to  scale  are  given.  Pupils  are  encour- 
aged to  make  things  from  paper,  pasteboard,  wood,  accord- 
ing to  definite  measurements. 

"Through  similar  constructive  work  the  pupils  are  led 
to  add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide  fractions,  no  attention 

whatever  being  given  to  processes.  Here 
Fractions 

is  the  way  four  such  questions,  given  as 

busy  work,  were  solved  by  a  pupil  during  the  second  school 
month  of  the  third  grade,  the  telling  being  preceded  by 
drawings  in  each  case: 

"  I.  I  drew  a  line  2.\  inches  long.  I  added  to  it  a  line 
ij  inches  long.  My  line  is  3}  inches  long. 

"  2.  I  drew  a  line  I  J  inches  long.  I  drew  another  twice 
as  long.  My  last  line  is  3  inches  long. 

"3.  I  drew  a  line  2j  inches  long.  I  cut  off  ij  inches. 
My  line  is  now  ij  inches  long. 

"4.  I  drew  a  line  5  inches  long.  I  divided  it  into  half 
inches.  There  are  ten  half-inches  in  the  line. 

"  Such  exercises  develop  not  only  observation  and 
thought,  but  what  is  of  equal  importance,  expression. 

"  Only  simple  problems  are  given.  In  so  far  as  possible 
they  are  drawn  from  the  experience  of  the  children.  Be- 

ginning with  the  second  year  simple  prob- 
Problems 

lems  are  given  as  a  part  of  many  reading 

lessons.  No  part  of  the  arithmetic  work  has  a  greater 
value  than  this.  In  reading  problems,  the  children  are 


GENERAL  AIMS  143 

trained  to  note  what  is  given,  what  is  asked  for.  They  are 
led  to  feel  that  reading  the  problem  is  the  first  great  step 
in  its  solution. 

"While  the  pupils  are  trained  to  explain  in  simple  lan- 
guage the  problems  given,  all  the  whys  and  wherefores  are 
not  demanded  in  either  the  problem  work  or  in  such  me- 
chanical processes  as  '  borrowing  '  and  '  carrying.'  Nor  is 
it  considered  criminal  if  pupils  fail  to  be  able  to  apply  all 
the  numbers  taken  up.  While  applied  work  and  measure- 
ments are  important  and  are  not  neglected,  the  principal 
aim  of  the  year's  work  is  facility  in  handling  the  combina- 
tions given.  Even  in  the  third  year  something  must  be 
left  to  the  growing  maturity  of  the  child." 

From  the  many  exercises  in  arithmetic  by  pupils  of  the 
third  grade  three  are  given  below. 

I. 

I  drew  a  square  one  inch  on  every  side. 

I  drew  two  squares.    There  are  two  square  inches  in  it. 

I  drew  a  rectangle  4  inches  long  and  2  inches  wide.  It 
is  twelve  inches  around  it.  There  are  8  square  inches  in 
the  rectangle. 

One  square  is  J  of  the  rectangle.  Five  squares  are  f 
of  the  rectangle. 

II. 

I  have  a  small  square.  In  my  square  are  four  triangles. 
Each  triangle  is  J  of  my  square. 

III. 

PROBLEMS 

A  farmer  had  275  horses.  He  sold  78  of  them.  He  had 
197  horses  left. 


144  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

One  pencil  cost  5  cents.  I  bought  5  pencils  and  had  to 
pay  25  cents  for  them. 

There  were  23  cows  in  one  field  and  57  cows  in  another 
field.  In  the  two  fields  there  were  80  cows. 

There  were  400  cows  in  one  field  and  the  farmer  put  127 
of  them  into  another  field.  There  were  273  cows  left  in  the 
first  field. 


CHAPTER  IX 

SOME  SUBJECT  MATTER  AND  METHODS  IN  FOURTH, 
FIFTH,  SIXTH,  SEVENTH,  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES 

FOURTH  YEAR  GRADE 

The  work  of  this  year  includes  daily  oral  drill  in  addi- 
tion, subtraction,  multiplication,  division,  and  partition  of 
numbers    through    144.      Many    combina- 

Matter  t*ons  are  £*ven>  suc^  as  25  +  18;  80 —  21 ; 

9  X  400 ;  the  indicated  operations  being 
performed  mentally.  Long  division,  easy  factoring,  prac- 
tice in  reading  and  writing  numbers  through  two  periods, 
are  also  in  the  allotment  for  fourth  grades.  Such  Roman 
numerals  as  are  found  in  the  reading  lessons  are  taught. 

Certain  fractions  are  taken  objectively;  such  as,  f,  f,  f, 
f ,  and  many  others.  Where  the  results  are  integers,  parts 
of  numbers  are  found.  By  the  use  of  the  ruler  and  of 
blackboard  illustrations,  pupils  are  led  in  a  simple,  con- 
crete way  to  add,  subtract,  multiply,  and  divide  fractions, 
continuing  the  work  begun  in  these  lines  in  the  third  grade. 
To  aid  in  the  thorough  comprehension  of  fractions,  differ- 
ent concrete,  fractional  forms  and  results  are  frequently 
compared  with  one  another. 

By  the  use  of  the  common  unjts  of  measurement,  the 
pupils  are  kept  familiar  with  inch,  foot,  yard,  mile;  square 
inch,  square  foot;  cubic  inch,  cubic  foot;  pint,  quart,  gal- 
lon; ounce,  pound;  unit,  dozen,  gross;  second,  minute, 
hour,  week,  month,  year. 

ii  145 


146  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

Throughout  the  year  problems  are  considered  very  im- 
portant. At  least  one  a  day  is  required  in  written  work, 
and  every  day  several  are  given  orally.  They  are  taken 
from  a  variety  of  sources, — geography,  nature  study,  the 
stories,  daily  events;  there  are  simple  exercises  in  buying 
and  selling,  and  in  making  change.  No  problem  is  given 
requiring  more  than  two  mental  operations,  and  a  clear 
statement  of  his  problem  is  required  of  every  child,  whether 
he  is  solving  it  orally  or  in  writing. 

By  constant  association  of  concrete  forms  with  their 
actual  measurements,  empirically  determined  by  the  chil- 
dren; by  training  to  see  relations,  both  integral  and  frac- 
tional, the  solution  of  these  problems  is  raised  out  of  guess- 
ing into  careful  calculation  and  accurate  knowledge.  These 
are  two  of  the  important  aims  of  the  work  in  the  fourth 
grade. 

Busy  work  and  class  exercises,  closely  correlated  with 
drawing  and  geography,  are  also  prominent  features  of  the 
work  of  the  year.  This  constructive  work  centers  around 
the  use  of  the  ruler,  of  surface  and  solid  forms,  of  prob- 
lems involving  the  use  of  diagrams,  and  of  drawing  to 
scale. 

A  fourth  grade  teacher1  says  of  this  work: 

On  coming  into  the  fourth  grade  the  children  can  use 

the  inch,  half-inch,  and  quarter-inch,  and  they  soon  learn 

the  eighth-inch  also.     By  using  the   ruler 

Fractional  the  children  readily  learn  to  add  such  ex- 

ments  amples  as  the  following:  Draw  a  line  ij 

inches  long ;  add  to  it  a  line  2 J  inches  long ; 

how  long  is  the  line  thus  made?    Draw  a  figure  2j  inches 

*Miss  Maud  Southworth. 


SUBJECT    MATTER   AND    METHODS  147 

by  3!  inches.  Tell  what  you  did.  Find  the  perimeter. 
How  long  is  it? 

Later,  such  examples  as  the  following  are  mastered:  I 
have  three  pieces  of  string;  one  is  2j  inches  long,  another 
is  3J  inches  long,  and  the  third  is  2,\  inches  long.  If  laid 
end  to  end,  how  long  a  piece  of  string  would  I  have? 

Towards  the  end  of  the  school  year  the  pupils  will  add 
such  numbers  without  actually  drawing  the  lines,  and  many 
can  add  them  mentally. 

Comparisons  of  lines  are  also  made.  Lines  are  drawn 
on  the  board  with  colored  chalk  or  put  on  a  square  of  card- 
board. Different  objects  in  the  schoolroom  are  considered, 
width,  height,  length,  being  compared  one  with  the  other. 
The  objects  for  drawing  are  reasoned  out  in  the  same  way, 
and  proportion  becomes  easier.  Thus  the  children  become 
accustomed  to  measuring  and  to  estimating  the  perimeters 
and  surfaces  of  objects  varying  greatly  in  shape  and  size. 

Until  Christmas,  the  end  of  the  first  term,  the  children 
are  busy  with  measurements,  fractions  considered  con- 
cretely, addition,  subtraction,  multiplication,  and  short 
division.  One  problem  is  given  every  day  and  the  children 
are  taught  to  read  it  and  to  reason  it  out.  After  the  Christ- 
mas vacation  comes  the  real  work  of  the  year,  long  division. 

In  the  third  grade,  in  learning  the  tables,  the  children 
found  J  of  12;  in  the  fourth  grade  they  find  f,  f.  Later, 
they  find  mentally  such  parts  as  f  of  480. 

For  mental  drill  such  combinations  are  given  as: 

14         18         20         30  14 

+  10    +10    +10    +10      +ii  or  14 +10+ 1 


148  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

2O  4O  60  30 

—  10    —  20    —  40  —  19  or  30  — 10  —  9 

76 

—  48  or  76 —  40  —  8 

For  help  in  long  division  such  tables  as  the  following  are 
given : 

13X3;     14X3;     15X3;     16X3; 

17X3;     18X3;     19X3;     19X9; 

39-^3;    42-^-3;    45-^-3;    48-^-3; 

5!-^3;   54-^-3;   57-^-3;   171 -f- 9- 

Compound  numbers  are  begun  in  the  earlier  grades  by 
actual  measurements.  In  the  fourth  grade  also  the  pint, 
quart,  and  gallon  measures  are  in  the  room.  Pupils  are 
using  the  inch,  foot,  and  yard  with  their  rulers;  and  they 
find  the  square  foot  and  square  yard  by  measurements.  If 
all  this  has  been  done  before  it  is  so  much  easier  in  the 
fourth  grades;  it  is  never  unnecessary  training,  for  to  be 
accurate  in  estimates  the  pupils  must  be  kept  in  frequent 
touch  with  the  actual  measurements. 

By  the  last  of  the  year  the  pupils  can  find  the  area  of 
such  surfaces  as  this: 

A  piece  of  paper  is  9  inches  long  and  6  inches  wide ;  what 
is  its  area?  Pupils  draw  the  surface,  divide  it  into  square 
inches,  and  write  the  answer  in  a  sentence,  telling  how  th 
work  has  been  done.  The  pupils  are  then  shown  that  the 
same  result  is  obtained  by  multiplying  9X6.  In  time  they 


SUBJECT    MATTER   AND    METHODS  I4Q 

use  much  larger  numbers,  without  drawing.  The  process 
of  solving  the  problem  mentally  is  often  followed  by  draw- 
ing the  area  to  scale. 

Thirty  minutes  a  day  are  given  to  arithmetic  in  the 
fourth  grade.  Most  of  this  time  is  taken  for  oral  exer- 
cises, unless  some  entirely  new  subject  is  to  be  presented. 
Thirty  minutes  a  day  are  also  used  for  seat  work  by  every 
pupil.  This  generally  consists  of  ten  examples.  Much  of 
the  grade  work  is  based  on  problems  drawn  from  the  expe- 
riences of  the  pupils. 

FIFTH  YEAR  GRADE 

With  the  close  of  the  fourth  grades  there  begins  among 
the  pupils  that  constant  dropping  out  of  school  that  does  not 
cease  thereafter.  Consequently,  persistent  effort  is  made 
to  give  every  child  as  thorough  a  preparation  as  his  mental 
development  will  permit  for  the  world  into  which  he  is 
entering.  Arithmetic  is  one  of  the  necessities  in  all  lives, 
but  the  processes  are  not  many  that  are  required  for  a  boy 
or  girl  who  leaves  school  when  but  eleven  years  old.  Such 
a  child  does  need,  however,  thorough  knowledge  of  those 
few  processes,  rapidity  and  accuracy  in  their  use,  and  a 
quick  recognition  of  the  proper  operation. 

The  fifth  grade  outline  of  arithmetic  aims  to  give  care- 
ful and  extensive  reviews  of  the  uses  of  integers  in  numbers 
through  three  periods  and  of  the  handling  of  simple  frac- 
tions. In  using  integers  there  is  drill  in  rapid  addition  of 
ledger  columns;  mental  work  with  such  combinations  as, 
33  +  42,  84  —  47,  6400  -r-  8 ;  long  multiplication  and  divis- 
ion are  completed ;  pupils  become  very  familiar  with  factor- 
ing; numbers  of  three  periods  are  written  and  read;  the 


ISO  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

greatest  common  factor  and  the  least  common  multiple  are 
introduced,  but  drills  on  these  subjects  are  in  connection 
with  addition  and  subtraction  of  fractions;  Roman  numer- 
als are  treated  incidentally,  as  they  appear  in  reading. 

Fundamental  operations  with  small  fractional  numbers 
are  a  constant  part  of  the  fifth  year  course.  They  are  stud- 
ied  concretely  by  means  of  lines,  diagrams, 
solids,  as  in  the  lower  grades,  so  that  the 
pupils  are  led  to  think  of  fractions  as  having  representative 
bodies  in  the  world  of  realities.  Puzzling  and  complex 
forms  are  omitted,  for  there  is  no  desire  to  confuse  the 
child;  on  the  contrary,  the  aim  of  the  year  in  regard  to 
fractions  is  that  every  pupil  become  able  to  form  clear  men- 
tal images  of  fractions,  so  that  all  operations  with  them 
may  be  simplified.  Such  fractions  as  are  commonly  met  in 
business  transactions  are  used  for  the  drills  and  problems 
given  in  the  class.  The  most  frequent  are, — halves,  thirds, 
fourths,  fifths,  sixths,  eighths,  twelfths.  The  pupils  are 
expected  to  learn  to  find  the  least  common  denominator  by 
inspection.  Aliquot  parts  are  studied,  and  fractions  are 
compared. 

Measurements  are  continued.  The  various  linear,  sur- 
face, cubical,  liquid,  and  weight  units  are  in  the  room,  and 
in  a  concrete  way  the  pupils  become  famil- 

Num^ers  *ar  wit^  them  a11'     Dri11  is  given  in  cnang~ 

ing  any  unit  of  these  measurements  into  the 

next  larger  and  the  next  smaller  unit.  Estimates  are  made 
of  lengths,  weights,  surfaces,  cubical  contents,  and  the  esti- 
mates are  verified.  The  area  of  rectangular  surfaces  is 
found  by  multiplying  the  number  of  units  in  a  row  by  the 
number  of  rows. 


SUBJECT    MATTER   AND    METHODS 

Problems  of  some  practical  nature,  but  simple  enough  to 
be  within  the  grasp  of  the  pupils,  are  in  daily  use.  Mental 
work  is  given  as  much  time  as  written  work;  it  always 
comes  first,  so  as  to  prepare  the  mind  for  more  rapid  think- 
ing in  the  written  exercises.  Considerable  constructive 
work  is  given  in  connection  with  drawing  and  geography. 
About  fifty  minutes  a  day  are  given  to  arithmetic,  mental 
and  written,  in  this  grade. 

The  following  is  summarized  from  an  account  of  the 
year's  work  and  the  method  of  developing  its  various  fea- 
tures, as  given  by  one  of  the  regular  teachers  r1 

For  convenience  in  handling  fractions  the  subject  is  di- 
vided into  three  topics, — preliminary  work,  addition  and 
subtraction,  multiplication  and  division.  Under  prelimin- 
ary work  the  following  points  are  taught, — denominator, 
numerator,  formation  of  a  fraction,  raising  to  higher  terms, 
reducing  to  lower  terms,  changing  whole  or  mixed  numbers 
to  improper  fractions,  changing  fractional  forms  to  whole 
or  mixed  numbers,  finding  the  least  common  denominator 
of  two  or  more  fractions. 

To  develop  the  idea  of  the  denominator  an  exercise  sim- 
ilar to  the  following  is  taken:  Divide  the  pages  in  your 

readers  into  two  equal  parts.     What  is  each 
Denominator 

part    called?    What    are    the    two    halves 

equal  to?  Show  J,  |,  J,  f  of  the  readers.  Find  J,  £  of 
your  rulers.  These  exercises  are  continued  with  lines, 
squares,  yard-sticks,  and  circles. 

Development  exercises  for  the  numerator  follow.  The 
teacher  tells  the  class  to  draw  a  line  showing  the  denomina- 

'Miss  Harriet  M.  Keating. 


I  $2  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

tor  3.     A  brace  is  placed  above  one  of  the  parts,  and  the 
class  is  asked  to  express  in  words  and  by  the  proper  frac- 
tional writing  how  many  parts  have  thus 
Numerator 

been  taken.     The  pupils  then  show  §  of  a 

line,  |,  £ .  The  same  is  shown  with  squares,  circles,  objects, 
until  the  meaning  of  the  numerator  is  clear.  The  forma- 
tion of  the  fraction  is  then  dwelt  upon,  until  the  meaning 
of  both  numerator  and  denominator  is  thoroughly  under- 
stood. 

A  line  is  divided  into  two  parts  and  one-half  is  taken. 
Directly  beneath  the  first  line  a  second  one  is  shown,  hav- 
ing the  denominator  ?. 
Higher  and 

Lower  Terms  2 

I 

Then  come  questions  and  observations.  How  many  parts 
have  we?  One-half  of  the  line  is  the  same  as  how  many 
fourths?  Write  J,  f.  Each  term  of  the  first  fraction  has 
been  multiplied  by  what?  Has  the  value  of  the  fraction 
been  changed?  Illustrate  many  times.  Use  squares,  cir- 
cles, lines,  objects.  Make  the  rule  for  what  has  been  done. 
Reduce  to  lower  terms  by  reversing  the  operation  and  the 
illustrations.  Drill  thoroughly. 

Factoring  is  developed  through  questioning,  and  num- 
bers to  145  are  factored.    Rules  for  factoring  by  inspec- 
tion are  copied  into  the  notebooks  and  used 
Factoring 

for  reference.     Two  numbers  are  then  used 

for  factoring  by  inspection  and  for  comparison,  as  52  and 
78,  and  cancellation  is  developed  and  explained.  It  is  soon 
understood,  and  its  use  minimizes  the  labor. 

Integers  are  changed  to  fractional  forms.     How  many 
halves  in  4?    How  many  times  £  are  there  in  2?    How 


SUBJECT    MATTER   AND   METHODS  153 

many  times  £  are  there  in  3  ?     Thus  there  is  developed  the 
rule  for  changing  an  integer  to  a  fractional  form. 

Fractions  are  next  reduced  to  a  common  denominator,  as 
J  and  J.     This  is  a  repetition  of  the  process  of  finding 

higher  terms  for  a  fraction,  and  is  devel- 
Common  .  ..  .  . 

Denominator         oped  with  lines  and  circles  m  a  similar  man- 

ner. This  includes  fractions  whose  de- 
nominators are  prime  to  each  other,  as  |  and  ^.  The  drills 
in  factoring  immediately  suggest  6.  By  means  of  circles 
divided  into  sixths  the  common  denominator  is  illustrated. 
Fractions  having  different  denominators  are  compared 
as  a  preparation  for  the  operations  for  which  the  pupils  are 

about  ready.  A  pupil  is  given  ten  circles, 
Comparison 

of  Fractions  cut   mto   halves-     From   these   i»  l>    f  are 

taken  and  fitted  into  wholes,  f  are  taken 
up  and  f-  are  removed  from  them.  After  many  exercises 
of  this  sort,  fourths  are  made  from  a  portion  of  the  halves, 
and  twelfths  from  some  of  the  fourths.  Fourths  and 
twelfths  are  added,  subtracted;  combinations  are  also  made 
with  the  halves.  Five  circles  are  cut  into  thirds;  some  of 
these  are  cut  into  sixths;  some  of  these  into  twelfths. 
Thirds  are  added  and  subtracted;  sixths;  twelfths;  combi- 
nations are  made,  and  the  pupils  .work  out  the  results. 
Mental  and  oral  drills  are  given.  Addition  and  subtraction 
of  fractions  now  follow  with  comparatively  little  hesitation 
or  confusion. 

Multiplication  of  a  fraction  by  an  integer  is  first  pictured 
with  lines.     One  line  is  divided  into  eighths,  and  one  part 

is  taken.  A  second  line,  of  equal  length, 
Multiplication  {s  drawn  •  t  ^  ^  fi  it  .g 


of  Fractions 

divided   into   eighths,   three   of   which  are 

taken.     The  pupils  readily  see  that  the  second  line  that  is 


154  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

ond  line  that  is  marked  off  with  a  brace  is  three  times  the 
length  of  the  first  one.  They  write  the  two  fractions,  J,  f , 
realizing  that  to  obtain  the  latter  they  have  multiplied  the 
first  by  3,  and  that  only  the  numerator  has  changed.  Many 
drills  follow,  that,  in  spite  of  their  simplicity,  fix  the  fact 
that  to  multiply  the  numerator  of  a  fraction  by  an  integer 
multiplies  the  value  of  the  fraction. 

To  multiply  a  fraction  by  an  integer  by  dividing  the 
denominator  is  also  illustrated  by  lines  and  circles.  Many 
illustrations,  continued  at  intervals  for  several  days,  fix  the 
fact  that  the  smaller  the  denominator  the  fewer  and  larger 
are  the  parts  into  which  an  object  is  divided;  hence,  divid- 
ing the  denominator  by  any  number  multiplies  the  size  of 
the  part  by  that  number. 

Division  of  fractions  reverses  the  illustrations  for  multi- 
plication of  fractions ;  consequently,  because  of  the  resultant 
confusion  in  the  minds  of  pupils,  special  care  must  be  ob- 
served in  making  the  illustrations,  which 
ivision  should  be  frequent  and  numerous.  The  steps 

taken  are :  I .  To  divide  a  fraction  by  an 
integer  by  dividing  the  numerator.  2.  To  divide  a  fraction 
by  an  integer  by  multiplying  the  denominator.  3.  To  divide 
a  mixed  number  by  an  integer.  4.  To  divide  an  integer  by 
a  fraction  whose  numerator  is  I.  5.  To  divide  an  integer 
by  a  fraction  when  the  integer  is  exactly  divisible.  6.  To 
divide  an  integer  by  a  fraction  when  the  integer  is  not 
exactly  divisible.  7.  To  divide  a  fraction  by  a  fraction 
when  the  numerator  of  the  dividend  is  exactly  divisible. 
8.  To  divide  a  fraction  by  a  fraction  when  the  numera- 
tor is  not  exactly  divisible.  9.  To  divide  a  mixed  number 


SUBJECT   MATTER  AND   METHODS  155 

by  a  fraction.  10.  To  divide  a  mixed  number  by  a  mixed 
number. 

It  is  desired  that  the  pupil  shall  be  able  to  do  more  than 
"  work  "  fractions ;  he  must  be  able  to  see  them,  to  visualize 
the  operations  so  that  he  understands  them  perfectly.  In 
this  ability  will  lie  his  real  mastery  of  their  use  in  later  life. 

Compound  numbers  and  tables  are  also  a  part  of  this 
year's  work,  and  the  aliquot  parts  of  a  dollar  are  studied. 

f>  £>  T£  °f  I0°  cents  are  found  mentally; 
Money 

rib  t>  £  are  worked  out  by  diagrams.     For 

||  an  oblong  is  ruled,  6  by  4  inches  in  size,  divided  into 
spaces  one-half  inch  square.  By  inspection  of  the  ruler 
the  children  estimate  J  of  an  inch  and  add  a  strip  that  wide 
to  the  width  of  the  oblong.  This  gives  a  surface  I2x8j 
inches,  or  the  equivalent  of  100  squares.  One  row  equals 
TV  of  100,  or  8J  squares ;  two  rows  equal  -fz  of  100,  or  i6| 
squares. 

For  f  an  oblong  is  ruled,  4  inches  wide  by  6J  long,  di- 
vided into  half-inch  squares.  This  gives  a  surface  of  8x 
12 J  squares,  or  100  squares.  One  row  is  £  of  100,  or  12  J 
squares.  Two  rows  are  f  of  100,  or  25  squares. 

For  £  an  oblong  is  ruled,  ij  inches  wide  and  4  inches 
long,  and  divided  into  quarter-inch  squares.  By  inspec- 
tion of  the  ruler  the  children  estimate  f  of  a  quarter-inch 
space,  and  add  that  amount  to  the  length  of  the  line.  This 
gives  a  surface  of  6  x  i6|  squares,  or  100  squares.  One 
row  is  £  of  100,  or  i6|  squares.  Two  rows  are  f  of  100, 
or  33^  squares.  Some  of  the  most  important  parts  of  100 
are  learned  by  the  pupils,  as :  8J  =  ?V  of  100 ;  I2j  =  J  of 
100;  i6f  =  £  of  100.  Other  aliquot  parts  are  also  mem- 
orized, as:  f,  |,  i,  i,  |,  etc. 


156  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

The  other  weights  and  measures,  mentioned  above,  are 
reviewed,  in  order  to  test,  rectify,  and  strengthen  the  chil- 
dren's knowledge  and  ability  to  estimate.  Then  the  tables 
and  the  various  abbreviations  in  use  are  learned. 

SIXTH  YEAR  GRADE 

The  general  outline  of  the  subjects  to  be  studied  in  the 
sixth  grade  is  similar  to  that  for  fifth  grades,  only  the  work 

becomes  more  intensive,  and  the  subjects 
Course 

are  treated  more  broadly.  Decimal  frac- 
tions added  to  common  fractions  means  that  percentage, 
bills, .and  many  business  transactions  in  money  matters  can 
be  studied  more  fully  than  in  the  earlier  grades.  Complex 
fractions  are  also  taken  up  this  year.  Exercises  and  drills 
are  numerous  to  fix  the  tables  of  weight  and  measure 
learned  and  used  in  the  preceding  grades. 

Mental  and  oral  exercises  are  given  one-third  of  the  time 
allotted  to  arithmetic  during  this  year;  concrete  measure- 
ments are  continued  at  intervals;  construc- 
Distribution  .  ,    .        .„  .        ,      .  ,     ,       , 

of  Time  tlve  wor^  1S  stl^  associated  with  the  draw- 

ing, and,  in  addition,  pupils  are  required  to 
draw  to  scale  the  surfaces  mentioned  in  assigned  problems 
or  to  make  illustrative  diagrams,  showing  that  the  opera- 
tion to  be  performed  is  understood  thoroughly.  This  illus- 
trative work  is  continued  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades. 
The  special  new  feature  of  the  year  is  the  study  of  deci- 
mal fractions,  particularly  in  their  application  to  percentage 

and  to  other  business  forms.  At  first,  the 
Percentage 

pupils  are  led  to  see  that  the  underlying 

principles  of  fractions,  both  common  and  decimal,  are  iden- 
tical with  those  of  percentage.    They  are  also  led  to  see 


SUBJECT   MATTER   AND   METHODS  157 

and  to  think  the  percentage  relations  by  the  use  of  lines,  cir- 
cles, squares,  just  as  was  done  with  common  fractions,  until 
fifty  per  cent,  of  a  body  has  as  concrete  an  existence  in  their 
minds  as  one-half  of  that  same  body  would  have.  Drills 
are  used  on  giving  parts  of  numbers  as  decimals,  common 
fractions,  aliquot  parts,  and  percentage.  The  aim  is  that 
pupils  know  at  sight  the  decimal  and  percentage  values  of 
the  following  fractions :  |,  f ;  |,  f ,  | ;  £,  f ,  f ,  J ;  |,  f ,  f , 

$  >  i>  I >  f  >  T>  f>  f>  f  j  i>  i»  f »  i>  i »  TT>  rV  5  TCT  >  3rV 

The  following  definite  suggestions  come  from  a  sixth 
grade  room:1 

Common  fractions  having  been  introduced  in  the  fifth 
grades  and  the  principles  learned  there,  the  work  in  the 
sixth  grades  is  a  review  of  the  subject, 
combined  with  more  thorough  and  difficult 
work  by  the  introduction  of  more  difficult 
problems,  correct  analysis,  decimal  fractions,  and  complex 
fractions.  In  presenting  the  subject  of  decimals,  the  pupils 
are  led  to  see  that  they  are  studying  another  kind  of  frac- 
tion. The  parts  of  the  unit  are  first  given  in  the  form  of 
a  common  fraction,  then  as  a  decimal  fraction.  The  nu- 
merator and  denominator  of  a  decimal  are  considered,  and 
the  use  of  the  point  as  well  as  the  importance  of  always 
noticing  it.  Wfiile  learning  to  read  decimals,  the  pupils 
also  spell  the  denominators  and  the  corresponding  term  in 
whole  numbers,  so  as  to  fix  the  distinction  in  spelling,  pro- 
nunciation, and  meaning.  Careful  attention  is  given  to 
writing  and  reading  decimals  before  any  examples  are 
given,  for  the  majority  of  the  mistakes  in  working  with 
decimals  come  from  the  fact  that  the  pupils  do  not  under- 

"Mr.  Edward  P.  Liesy. 


METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

stand  these  first  steps,  consequently  the  real  value  of  any 
decimal  is  obscured. 

The  pupils  are  taught  that  decimal  fractions,  like  com- 
mon fractions,  can  not  be  added  or  subtracted  until  they 
are    reduced   to    a    common    denominator. 
Adding  Illustrations  by  comparing  decimals  placed 

ftflfl 

Subtracting  correctly    and    incorrectly    with    common 

fractions  show  how  this  common  denomi- 
nator is  to  be  found.    As: 

T<>- 125 

•I25— 


The  fact  that  placing  decimal  points  under  each  other  re- 
moves the  difficulty  is  usually  hailed  with  delight  for  ease 
of  operation,  and  the  illustration  usually  tends  to  greater 

care  in  writing  decimals.    As:  *      .     The  pupils  are  led 

to  see  that  with  this  position  tenths  are  being  added  to 
tenths,  hundredths  to  hundredths.  Many  examples  are 
given  through  all  of  this  preliminary  work  with  decimals, 
because  of  the  importance  of  getting  started  right.  Spe- 
cial drills  are  necessary  where  whole  numbers  and  decimals 
are  to  be  added  or  subtracted,  as:  25  +  .i25=?2  + 
.001  =  ? 

Multiplication  and  division  of  decimals  are  introduced 
through  common  fractions,  in  order  to  fix  the  need  and  the 

reason  for  the  pointing  off  of  the  product. 
Multiplication  Examples  are  given  as  follows :  &  X  1%  — 
Division  TTT-  Written  out  as  a  decimal  the  pupil 

observes  that  to  say  .2  X  .2  =  .04,  he  must 
put  in  the  cipher  to  make  his  decimal  read  correctly.  Drill 


SUBJECT   MATTER   AND   METHODS  159 

is  frequent,  comparing  constantly  with  equivalent  common 
fractions,  until  the  processes  and  the  reasons  for  them  are 
thoroughly  learned. 

After  studying  fractions  and  decimals  percentage  is  com- 
paratively easy.     Much  oral  work  is  given  before  any  writ- 
ten work  is  attempted.     No  terms,  such  as 
Percentage 

base,  rate,  are   required  in   the   beginning. 

The  first  problems  are  similar  to  the  following:  What  is 
25  per  cent,  of  $160?  What  is  17  per  cent,  of  140  gallons? 
Common  fractions  are  substituted  for  the  per  cent,  and  the 
indicated  multiplication  is  also  performed. 

The  next  problems  deal  with  finding  out  what  per  cent, 
one  number  is  of  another;  as:  $9  is  what  per  cent,  of  $12? 
This  is  so  closely  related  to  fractions  that  the  same  solution 
is  required,  only  the  answer  is  finally  given  in  per  cent. 
From  a  knowledge  of  aliquot  parts  many  of  the  fractional 
answers  are  given  as  per  cent,  at  sight ;  others  can  be  given 
by  a  little  mental  work;  still  others  must  be  thought  out 
more  laboriously.  This  last,  however,  is  an  exercise  that 
belongs  to  more  advanced  grades.  Problems  in  profit  and 
loss  and  many  miscellaneous  examples,  including  all  of  the 
principles  that  have  been  developed  in  percentage,  complete 
the  work  of  the  year  in  percentage. 

To  secure  accuracy  in  business  forms  and  letter  writing 

requires   much   careful  work.    There  are   so   many   little 

points  to  be  observed  that  pupils  are  liable 

Forms  "  to   over^°o^   some   of   them;   consequently, 

repetition    and    rewriting    are    necessary. 

The  proper  forms  are  placed  before  the  class  and  explained. 

After  copying  and  studying  them,  many  bills  and  letters  are 

dictated.    The  result  desired  is  that  every  pupil  shall  be 


I6O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

able  to  write  a  letter  ordering  a  bill  of  goods,  to  make  out 
a  bill  to  be  sent  with  the  goods  ordered,  to  write  a  letter 
sending  the  money  to  pay  for  the  goods,  and  to  write  the 
receipt  for  the  money  paid.  Every  paper  must  be  accom- 
panied by  the  proper  addresses  of  the  person  to  whom  the 
letter  is  sent  and  of  the  sender.  The  pupils  also  write  many 
original  bills  and  letters.  While  making  out  these  bills  and 
orders,  the  pupils  are  asked  to  learn  from  the  daily  paper 
the  actual  prices  of  produce,  and  to  use  them  in  their  trans- 
actions. From  these  newspaper  price-lists  a  great  deal  of 
information  is  obtained  concerning  articles  bought  and 
sold.  In  connection  with  letter  writing,  there  is  taught 
how  to  subscribe  for  a  newspaper  or  magazine. 

No  written  work  in  measurements  is  taken  during  this 
year,  but  many  applications  of  the  tables  already  learned 
are  made,  work  with  the  ruler  is  frequent, 
mentg  and  the  tables  are  reviewed  whenever  it 

seems  necessary.  Some  new  measurements 
are  drawn  on  the  board;  the  square  rod  is  drawn  on  the 
floor  of  the  school  room;  the  square  mile  is  indicated  as 
lying  between  certain  boundaries,  and  the  pupils  are  en- 
couraged to  walk  or  ride  over  its  area  so  as  to  become 
familiar  with  its  extent.  Square  and  cubic  measure  are 
emphasized,  as  being  the  least  understood  of  all  the  tables, 
but  the  work  is  in  the  nature  of  simple  problems  to  make 
the  principles  clear,  rather  than  difficult  problems  for  the 
sake  of  the  work  itself.  Drawings  are  made  to  represent 
some  of  the  solids  measured  by  cubic  measure,  and  the  con- 
tents are  found. 

Simple  interest  is  taken  as  a  part  of  the  money  topic. 
The  subject  is  given  in  a  very  elementary  manner.  The 


SUBJECT   MATTER  AND   METHODS  l6l 

pupils  are  told  how  men  borrow  money,  pay  for  its  use,  and 
return  it;  how  securities  are  given  as  a  safeguard  for  the 
Simple  money  borrowed.  No  difficult  problems  are 

Interest  given,  and  no  special  rule  or  method  is  in- 

sisted upon  for  rinding  the  interest.  Many  problems  are 
given,  the  simpler  ones  being  worked  orally,  while  the  more 
difficult  ones  are  worked  out  on  the  board  or  paper. 

SEVENTH  YEAR  GRADE 

Accuracy,  rapidity,  neatness,  these  are  the  three  require- 
ments kept  constantly  before  the  seventh  grades.     Pupils 

who  have  remained  in  school  until  this  year 
Course 

will,  if  passed  in  their  studies,  ordinarily 

continue  until  the  end  of  the  grammar  grades.  Conse- 
quently, the  work  of  the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  can  be 
planned  together  as  a  whole  more  safely  than  any  other  two 
consecutive  grades.  There  are  many  and  frequent  exer- 
cises in  rapid  addition  of  ledger  columns  and  of  simpler 
sums.  Mental  work  is  continued  in  combinations  of  two 
or  more  figures,  a  feature  of  the  exercises  in  all  of  the 
grammar  grades.  The  Arabic  and  Roman  notations  are 
completed.  The  textbook  presentation  of  common  and 
decimal  fractions  is  finished  during  this  year,  although 
drills  on  these  subjects  are  important  so  long  as  the  pupil 
is  in  school.  The  pupils  are  made  familiar  with  several 
more  tables,  taken  concretely  at  first,  if  possible.  These 
are  troy  weight,  dry  measure,  paper  and  books,  English 
money,  and  counting  table.  Subtraction  of  dates;  lumber 
measure;  city  blocks;  cost  of  building  walks,  fences,  grad- 
ing streets,  excavating,  and  similar  work,  all  belong  to  the 
seventh  grade.  The  pupils  measure  walks  and  fences  that 
12 


1 62  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

are  being  built,  cellars  that  are  being  excavated,  rooms  that 
are  being  plastered,  and  report  on  the  measurements  taken 
and  the  data  secured.  This  work  may  be  done  by  one  pupil, 
by  the  whole  class,  or  by  a  committee  appointed  for  the 
purpose.  In  connection  with  geography,  a  simple  course 
in  longitude  and  time  is  given. 

Percentage  is  applied  more  extensively  to  business  opera- 
tions by  familiarity  with  the  following  topics:  percentage, 
profit  and  loss,  commission,  simple  interest,  accounts,  in- 
surance, and  simple  work  in  partial  payments.  In  connec- 
tion with  these  subjects  the  pupils  are  trained  to  write  all 
the  business  forms  required  by  them.  Simple  algebraic 
equations  are  used  in  many  solutions. 

The  principal  of  one  of  the  grammar  schools  and  the 
teacher  of  a  seventh  grade  gives  the  following  suggestions 
from  his  work  :* 

Much  oral  work  is  given  to  oblige  correct  thinking ;  there 
are  frequent  short  oral  drills  for  quickness  and  accuracy; 
computations  are  tested  both  by  rough  estimates  and  by 
exact  means ;  unusual  technical  terms  and  formal  rules  are 
avoided  except  when  necessary  for  good  work,  careful  ex- 
pression, or  complete  understanding. 

Since  the  cry  of  the  business  man  that  pupils  can  not  even 
add  or  multiply  correctly  is  only  too  well  founded,  much 
practice  is  given  for  acquiring  facility  in 
calculations.  Hence,  addition,  subtraction, 
multiplication,  and  division  are  reviewed,  reviewed,  and  re- 
viewed. All  kinds  of  problems,  especially  those  that  are 
based  on  actual  business  transactions,  are  used  to  prevent 
monotony  in  these  reviews.  Common  and  decimal  frac- 

*Mr.  O.  H.  Grubbs. 


SUBJECT   MATTER  AND   METHODS  163 

tions  are  reviewed  and  completed,  special  attention  being 
given  to  pure  decimals.  As  in  the  drills  on  integers,  in- 
numerable problems  are  given  in  fractions  to  develop  speed 
and  accuracy.  Much  stress  is  placed  on  cancellation,  actual 
multiplication  and  division  being  performed  by  the  shorter 
process  whenever  possible. 

Believing  that  any  one,  "  good  at  figures,"  can  readily 
adapt  himself  to  his  environments  when  placed  on  his  own 

resources  in  business,  only  a  few  tables  in 
Denominate  ,  .  ,  ,  ,  , 

Numbers  denominate  numbers  are  required;  but,  by 

a  concrete  use  of  linear,  surface,  and  cubic 
measures,  weights,  money,  and  counting,  pupils  are  led  to 
make  more  and  more  definite  their  ideas  of  number  rela- 
tions. Constructive  diagrams,  drawn  to  scale,  illustrative 
of  the  assigned  problems,  are  required  very  frequently.  In 
objective  work,  measurements  of  lumber  at  the  lumber 
yards,  of  excavations  being  made,  of  special  points  in 
houses  under  construction,  of  fences,  sidewalks,  streets,  are 
usually  obtained  through  efforts  of  the  class  as  a  whole. 
An  individual  or  a  committee  takes  the  measurements  when- 
ever it  is  not  convenient  for  the  whole  class  to  do  so.  This 
work  is  very  interesting  and  instructive  for  both  teacher 
and  pupils. 

As  we  are  working  for  mathematical  power,  its  develop- 
ment is  not  retarded  by  forcing  unnecessary  assistance  upon 

the  pupils.  In  percentage,  for  instance, 
Percentage  . 

where  the  problems  are   similar  in   every 

respect  to  those  given  the  fifth  grades  in  fractions  and  the 
sixth  grades  in  decimals,  the  pupils  are  expected  to  reason 
out  their  own  work.  Knowing  this,  the  children  respond 
to  the  requirement,  usually  with  readiness  and  success. 


164  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

Little  stress  is  laid  upon  the  various  terms,  insurance,  com- 
mission, profit  and  loss ;  the  pupil  who  has  been  well  taught 
in  fractions  and  decimals  handles  any  of  these  topics  with- 
out further  help.  Simple  problems  are  given,  and  empha- 
sis is  laid  upon  the  fact  that  per  cent,  means  hundredths, 
or  a  fraction  with  100  for  a  denominator.  The  pupil  is 
trained  to  ask  himself  of  what  the  per  cent,  is  to  be  taken. 
This  is,  of  course,  largely  a  matter  of  language.  Making 
use  of  aliquot  parts  connects  percentage  with  fractions  eas- 
ily, and  helps  prevent  falling  into  rote  methods. 

In  mental  arithmetic  the  aim  is  to  cover  the  same  work 
done  in  written  arithmetic,  fixing  the  principles  by  short, 

simple,  practical  examples.  Part  of  every 
Arithmetic  period  for  recitation  is  devoted  to  oral 

analyses.  Every  day  from  five  to  ten  ex- 
amples are  given  by  the  teacher,  the  pupils  writing  only 
the  answers. 

As  there  is  nothing  beyond  the  intelligence  of  the  average 
child  in  the  application  of  simple  algebraic  formulas  to  the 

solution  of  problems,  the  use  of  the  equa- 

Til  A 

E  uation  t*on  *s  °^ten  required.     It  is   always   em- 

ployed in  a  simple  manner,  and  the  pupils 
soon  learn  to  enjoy  its  use  and  to  appreciate  the  greater 
ease  of  solution  thus  made  possible. 

EIGHTH  YEAR  GRADE 

The  chief  work  of  this  grade  is  a  thorough  review  of  all 

the  subjects  and  processes  of  the  preceding  grades,  laying 

special  stress  on  the  fundamental  operations 
Course 

with  integers,  common  fractions,  such  of 

the  tables  as  are  in  frequent  use,  and  percentage.  Abund- 
ant drill  is  given  in  problems,  both  oral  and  written,  for  the 


SUBJECT    MATTER   AND    METHODS  165 

accuracy,  rapidity,  and  precision  of  work  that  is  considered 
essential  for  every  pupil  before  finishing  the  grammar 
grades. 

The  advanced  work  deals  with  ratio,  proportion,  partner- 
ship, taxes,  compound  interest,  trade  discount,  powers  and 
roots  with  application  to  mensuration.  Mental  work  is 
still  a  prominent  feature,  one-third  of  the  time,  approxi- 
mately, being  given  to  exercises  that  are  to  be  solved  men- 
tally. Some  work  in  book-keeping  is  introduced,  familiar- 
izing the  pupils  with  the  meaning  and  use  of  the  terms 
debtor,  creditor,  cash  account,  day  book,  and  ledger.  Keep- 
ing small  personal  accounts  is  usually  an  interesting  method 
of  study  with  the  pupils.  In  connection  with  these  exer- 
cises, there  is  opportunity  for  considerable  training  in  writ- 
ing business  letters  and  making  out  necessary  forms.  The 
simple  algebraic  equation  is  used  as  in  the  seventh  grades 
in  the  solution  of  many  problems. 

The  principal  of  one  of  the  grammar  schools  and  teacher 
of  an  eighth  grade1  gives  some  of  the  methods  used  in  his 
class : 

The  idea  of  training  for  habit  is  kept  constantly  in  mind, 
while  the  thought  of  the  year  concerning  knowledge  is  to 

give  the  pupils  a  familiarity  with  number 
Aims 

processes  that  will  assist  them  definitely  in 

bread-winning  pursuits.  Many  pupils  and  people  have 
ability,  but  they  are  lacking  in  the  power  of  concentration ; 
they  have  brains,  but  are  handicapped  by  an  inability  for 
continued  effort.  Consequently,  if  pupils  can  work  in- 
tensely on  some  problem  for  one  recitation  period,  endeav- 
oring, while  working  out  the  solution,  to  express  their  ideas 

1  Mr.  William  H.  Murray. 


1 66  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

logically,  systematically,  and  neatly,  valuable  power  is  being 
gained.  Certainly,  concentration  is  being  developed.  Ex- 
tremes in  this  mental  discipline  are  avoided,  for  ability  to 
reason  out  a  puzzle  does  not  always  imply  that  the  power 
gained  can  be  applied  in  other  directions. 

The  problems  and  general  treatment  of  insurance  as  given 
in  our  textbook  having  been  pronounced  obsolete  and  im- 
practical by  a  half  dozen  of  our  local  in- 
Insurance 

surance   agents,   the   teacher   has   made   a 

study  of  modern  methods  and  presents  the  subject  as  busi- 
ness is  actually  transacted  in  the  offices.  One  of  our  local 
agents  kindly  favored  us  with  a  talk  on  insurance  methods, 
which  proved  very  instructive.  From  him  we  obtained  a 
rate  book  and  insurance  maps  of  the  city.  The  superin- 
tendent of  streets  loaned  us  his  rubber  stamp  of  a  city 
block.  Every  pupil  was  given  a  diagram  of  a  block,  upon 
which,  after  locating  the  lot  where  he  lived,  he  made  a  dia- 
gram of  his  own  home  and  of  other  buildings  if  there  were 
any.  From  the  rate  book  was  obtained  the  rating  of  the 
property,  after  which  finding  the  premium  was  an  easy 
matter. 

In  considering  insurance  such  questions  as  these  are 
asked:  Why  is  A's  house  (which  is  isolated)  rated  so  much 
lower  than  B's  (which  is  crowded  among  other  houses)  ? 
Why  are  brick  buildings  rated  lower  than  frame  buildings? 
The  pupils  are  asked  what  rates  they  would  think  livery 
stables,  planing  mills,  paint  factories,  would  have  to  pay. 
In  most  cases  the  answers  are  readily  given.  Pupils  who 
live  in  the  country  discover  that  their  rates  are  higher  than 
those  of  many  living  in  the  city,  and  they  are  eager  to 
know  why.  The  fact  that  Chinatown  has  a  high  rate  af- 


SUBJECT    MATTER  AND   METHODS  l6/ 

fords  food  for  thought.  One  member  of  the  class  dis- 
covered that  his  rate  had  been  almost  doubled  during  the 
last  year.  A  committee  of  the  pupils  sent  to  investigate 
concluded  that  it  was  because  a  large  hay  barn  had  been 
constructed  on  the  adjoining  lot. 

Comparisons  between  the  school  house  and  other  build- 
ings are  made.  The  pupils  are  encouraged  to  bring  in  all 
the  questions  that  they  can,  and  by  the  time  that  we  are 
ready  to  take  up  a  new  topic  the  ground  has  been  very  well 
covered.  The  teacher  is  often  surprised  to  see  how  inter- 
esting a  dry  rate  book  becomes  when  put  into  actual  use. 
Many  oral  and  a  few  written  problems  are  given,  and  every 
pupil  writes  a  paper  summarizing  the  knowledge  that  is 
gained. 

In  computing  interest  the  hundred  month  method  is  used. 
The  basic  idea  is  that  the  interest  on  any  principal  for  one 

hundred  months  at  12  per  cent,  is  equal 
Interest 

to  the  principal,  and  that  the  interest  for  a 

number  of  months,  an  aliquot  part  of  one  hundred,  is  just 
that  part  of  the  principal.  The  interest  for  one  month  is 
yj-g-  of  the  principal,  and  the  interest  for  a  certain  number 
of  days  is  equal  to  so  many  thirtieths  reduced  to  the  lowest 
terms  of  y^  of  the  principal.  If  we  desire  the  interest 
for  eight  months,  we  point  off  two  places  in  the  principal 
and  multiply  by  8.  Having  found  the  interest  at  12  per 
cent.,  the  interest  at  any  per  cent,  may  be  found  by  first  see- 
ing what  part  the  given  per  cent,  is  of  twelve,  and  then  by 
taking  that  fractional  part  of  the  interest  at  12  per  cent. 
The  advantages  of  this  method  are  speed  and  the  avoidance 
of  bothersome  fractions,  for  the  work  is  largely  of  a  deci- 
mal nature. 


1 68  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

Square  and  cube  root  are  developed  by  the  blocks.  When 
the  pupils  understand  the  principle,  they  are  allowed  to  work 

by  rule.  After  the  demonstration  is  made 
Square  and  ,  Jf 

Cube  Root  v        teacher,  a  pupil,  generally  one  of  the 

brightest,  is  called  upon  to  present  the  same 
to  the  class,  using  the  blocks  while  so  doing.  In  a  very 
short  time  every  pupil  in  the  class  is  able  to  present  the  sub- 
ject intelligently.  Finally,  the  pupils  are  required  to  make 
the  drawings  representing  the  different  steps,  and  to  de- 
scribe the  process  in  writing.  Problems  involving  the  ap- 
plication of  square  and  cube  root  follow. 

In  measuring  surfaces  and  contents,  a  special  effort  is 
made  to  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  shapes  and  forms  have 

a  certain  relation  to  one  another;  and  that, 
Mensuration 

when  a  few  truths  are  well  understood,  it 

is  possible  to  discover  others.  Few  rules  are  required,  the 
pupils  developing  their  own  whenever  possible.  The  rec- 
tangle and  triangle  are  first  mastered.  When  a  new  figure 
involving  area  is  presented,  the  thought  is,  first,  find  the 
rectangle;  then,  find  the  triangle.  The  pupils  are  led  to 
see  that  the  faces  of  most  solids  are  related  to  one  or  the 
other  of  these  figures:  that  the  side  of  a  hexagonal  prism 
is  a  rectangle,  and  that  the  base  is  a  hexagon,  which  can 
be  divided  into  triangles;  that  the  base  of  a  cylinder  is  a 
circle,  made  up  of  triangles;  that  the  sides  form  a  rectangle; 
and  that  the  cone  and  the  pyramid  can  be  resolved  into 
triangles. 

In  our  work  with  solids,  we  follow  the  idea  so  well  ex- 
pressed by  Griffin :  "  Lead  the  children  to  see  that,  when 
finding  the  volume  of  a  solid,  they  are  finding  the  number 
of  cubic  units  it  contains,  which  are  found  in  layers,  of  a 


i 


SUBJECT    MATTER   AND    METHODS  169 

given  number  of  rows,  of  a  given  number  of  units  in  a 
row." 

The  relation  of  the  volumes  of  the  pyramid,  prism,  cone, 
and  cylinder  to  one  another  is  shown  by  experimenting 
with  tin  measures.  The  pupils  see  by  experiments  that  the 
cylinder  and  prism  hold  respectively  three  times  as  much 
water  as  do  the  cone  and  the  pyramid.  Hence  the  rule  for 
finding  their  volumes.  The  volume  of  the  sphere,  from  a 
model  divided  into  pyramids,  is  seen  to  be  the  aggregation 
of  the  volumes  of  a  number  of  pyramids.  The  relation  of 
the  great  circle  to  the  surface  of  a  sphere  is  shown  by  wrap- 
ping the  flat  and  the  convex  surfaces  of  a  hemisphere  with 
a  string.  The  pupils  see  that  twice  as  much  string  is  re- 
quired in  the  latter  as  in  the  former  case;  hence,  the  rule. 
It  is  found  by  experiment  with  a  string  that  the  circum- 
ference of  a  circle  is  about  3^  times  the  diameter.  It  is 
convenient  to  have  the  class  learn  the  formulas:  D  X 
3.1416  =  C;  and  D2  X  .7854  =  ^. 

Considerable  attention  is  given  to  drawing  to  scale  plans 
of  rooms,  yards,  and  gardens,  then  finding  the  areas.  A 
great  deal  of  time  is  required  for  this  kind  of  work,  as  much 
as  a  week  having  been  spent  on  our  school  yard  alone. 


PART  III 
NATURE  STUDY      GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER  X 

PLANT   STUDY1 

^— - 
Nature  study  is  an  attempt  to  place  the  child,  through 

iterest,  in  intelligent  touch  with  the  natural  objects  and 
>rocesses  which  surround  him.  It  turns  to  practical  use 

le  restless  spirit  of  investigation  which  is  so  characteristic 
of  healthy  childhood.  This  innate  curiosity  that  marks  the 
child  mind  is  the  natural,  wide-open  door  through  which 
multitudes  of  little  experiences  reach  their  places  in  the 
storehouse  of  knowledge.  It  is  the  province  of  nature 
study  to  direct  and  develop  this  form  of  interest;  to  guide 
the  child  to  correct  solutions  for  the  many  problems  that 
arise  in  his  actively  growing  mind,  and  thus  help  him  in 
securing  an  education  that  is  both  liberal  and  practical. 

Thus  far  the  tendency  has  been  toward  plant  and  animal 
study;  but,  while  these  subjects  are  admirably  adapted  to 
the  work,  every  course  is  enriched  and  interest  is  better 
sustained  by  including  lessons  on  air,  water,  evaporation 
and  condensation,  steam,  air  and  water  currents,  light,  heat, 
sound,  electricity,  minerals,  including  the  useful  metals, 
soils  and  soil  formation,  and  other  topics.  Plant  study  has 
already  taken  the  eminently  practical  form  of  school  gar- 
dens. In  these  the  elements  of  plant  physiology,  soils  and 
other  plant  foods,  preparation  and  cultivation  of  the  soil, 

1  The  chapter  on  Nature  Study  is  written  by  Mr.  Edward  Hughes, 
Supervisor  of  Nature  Study  in  the  Stockton  city  schools  and  Prin- 
cipal of  the  El  Dorado  Grammar  School. 

173 


METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

and  many  other  phases  of  agriculture  are  taught  objectively. 
This  movement,  wherever  directed  with  intelligence,  will 
be  an  important  step  toward  a  condition  in  which  trained 
men  and  rational  methods  will  supersede  our  present  "  hit 
and  miss  "  practices  in  farming.  Other  phases  of  nature 
study  promise  much  for  other  industrial  pursuits  as  well  as 
for  public  health  and  sanitation. 

Nature  study  is  a  common  sense  subject  and  does  not 
require  special  preparation  of  the  teacher.  Experience  in 
teaching  is  a  great  help;  tact  and  good  judgment  are  essen- 
tial. All  of  us  are  in  conscious  contact  with  nature  some- 
where. Let  the  first  lesson  or  series  of  lessons  be  drawn 
from  something  that  will  commend  itself  to  parents  as  prac- 
tical or  useful.  Make  the  lessons  short  and  simple.  Study 
results.  That  which  appeals  to  a  child's  interest  and  under- 
standing will  form  the  nucleus  of  a  course.  When  a  begin- 
ning has  once  been  made  every  day  will  contribute  some- 
thing for  the  enrichment  and  extension  of  the  work. 

A  common  mistake  by  teachers  and  supervisors  is  the 
attempt  to  make  science  of  the  subject.  The  child  sees  one 
thing  at  a  time  well.  Class  interest  flourishes  in  the  study 
of  the  isolated  object  or  phenomenon.  It  dies  when  we  try 
to  establish  causes  and  effects  which  are  not  almost  self- 
evident.  Our  knowledge  comes  to  us  as  isolated  facts  and 
experiences.  The  classification  into  a  body  of  knowledge 
is  the  work  of  maturer  years. 

Pupils  should  find  out  things  for  themselves ;  they  should 
not  read  too  much.  Those  who  get  into  the  habit  of  accept- 
ing the  statements  of  others  at  the  expense  of  the  power 
of  independent  observation  have  gained  nothing  from  the 
work.  The  use  of  nature  study  readers  may  arouse  inter- 


PLANT  STUDY 

est,  but  it  is  not  nature  study.  The  work  should  be  recrea- 
tive in  its  nature.  It  should  be  a  break  in  the  monotony 
and  drill  of  the  more  intensive  application  of  the  essential 
subjects. 

Nature  study  should  have  its  own  time  on  the  school 
program;  it  should  be  taught  for  its  own  value.  At  the 
same  time  it  furnishes  valuable  material  for  oral  language ; 
it  may  be  used  to  some  extent  in  written  work,  although 
pupils  should  not  feel  that  they  are  to  be  held  to  writing 
up  everything  studied  in  nature  work;  nature  study  and 
drawing  are  mutually  helpful;  the  value  of  nature  study 
to  geography  is  self-evident. 

Every  phase  of  the  work  discussed  in  the  ensuing  chap- 
ter has  been  tested  and  its  usefulness  demonstrated  by 
teachers  of  experience  and  good  judgment  in  the  schools 
of  our  city.  For  a  country  so  wide  in  extent  and  so  varied 
in  climate  and  other  conditions  as  ours,  it  is  impossible  to 
indicate  in  all  cases  at  just  what  time  of  the  year  a  particu- 
lar kind  of  material  will  be  available  for  the  different  re- 
gions included. 

PLANT  STUDY 

A  subject  well  suited  to  the  time  at  which  schools  usually 
open  in  autumn  is  seeds  and  seed  distribution.     It  should 
be  introduced  by  a  study  of  such  seeds  as 

the  bean'  S(luash>  acorn>  or  anv  lar£e  seed 
in  which  the  embryo  plant  is  easily  seen. 

Each  pupil  should  have  specimens  of  the  different  seeds  to 
be  examined.  Avoiding  technical  names,  draw  from  pupils 
such  facts  as  they  already  know  concerning  the  seed  and  its 
work  in  the  continued  life  of  the  plant.  Add  to  this  knowl- 
edge anything  within  the  pupil's  comprehension  which  may 


I?  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

be  necessary  to  impress  upon  his  mind  the  great  importance 
of  the  seed  in  the  perpetuation  of  the  plant  species.  The 
collection  of  seeds  should  follow.  In  this  work  the  teacher 
may  indicate  a  certain  class  of  seeds  to  be  collected  by  each 
grade.  Thus,  grade  one,  cereals;  grade  two,  vegetables 
and  flowers;  grade  three,  fruits;  grade  four,  forest  trees; 
grade  five,  common  weeds. 

Discuss  with  classes  the  advantage  of  such  appendages 
as  make  seeds  easily  carried  by  the  wind.  Examples: 
dandelion,  thistle,  milkweed,  salsify,  maple,  ash,  and  linden. 
In  some  cases  the  whole  plant  breaks  off  at  the  surface  of 
the  ground  and  is  rolled  by  the  wind  for  long  distances, 
scattering  seeds  as  it  goes.  Examples :  tumble-weed  of  the 
western  states  and  the  specially  troublesome  Russian  thistle. 
Other  seeds  have  hooked  or  barbed  spines  for  taking  hold 
of  the  hair  or  fur  of  animals  or  the  clothing  of  man.  Ex- 
amples: cockle-bur,  burdock,  hound's  tongue,  beggar-lice, 
Spanish-needle,  and  the  barbed  beards  of  grain.  Still 
others  have  spiral  "  clocks,"  very  sensitive  to  moisture. 
These,  by  their  motion,  help  the  seed  to  bore  into  the  soil, 
thus  insuring  its  growth.  Some  plants,  as  the  fruits  and 
the  nuts,  depend  upon  birds  and  animals  to  scatter  and  plant 
the  seeds.  Thus  the  jays,  woodpeckers,  squirrels,  become 
tree-planters  and  conservers  of  forests.  Each  plant  must  in 
some  way  solve  the  problem  of  effectually  scattering  and 
planting  its  seeds.  These  are  interesting  problems,  and 
perhaps  nothing  in  nature  tends  more  to  develop  the  habit 
of  close  observation  than  such  work  as  here  indicated,  and 
much  more  that  will  suggest  itself  to  the  teacher. 

Another  phase  of  the  subject  and  one  better  suited  to  the 
needs  of  higher  grades  is  seed  production  and  rate  of  in- 


PLANT   STUDY 

crease  among  plants.  Most  plants  produce  an  enormous 
number  of  seeds.  Have  pupils  count  the  number  of  grains 
Seed  of  wheat  produced  by  a  single  "  stool  " ;  the 

Increase  number  of  seeds  in  a  single  poppy  head,  and 

from  these  estimate  the  number  produced  by  an  entire 
plant.  Estimate  the  possible  increase  for  crop  after  crop. 
Beginning  with  a  single  seed,  how  long  would  it  take 
under  perfect  conditions  for  any  one  of  the  plants  studied 
to  occupy  all  the  land  in  a  single  city  block?  in  a  square 
mile?  in  the  state?  in  the  United  States?  That  plants 
do  not  increase  at  any  such  rate  is  apparent.  Why  not? 
What  becomes  of  the  seeds  thus  produced?  In  early 
spring  have  a  careful,  persevering  pupil  measure  off  a 
square  foot  or  a  square  yard  of  ground  and  carefully  pull 
up  and  count  all  the  plants  that  come  up  in  the  space.  In 
the  same  way  measure  a  similar  space  and  let  all  grow  that 
will.  How  many  of  the  plants  in  this  space  are  able  to 
reach  maturity  and  produce  seed?  Compare  this  number 
with  the  number  that  started  in  the  space  where  they  were 
counted.  Plants  struggle  with  other  plants  for  space  in 
which  to  grow.  They  also  struggle  for  life  against  ani- 
mals, poor  soil,  climatic  conditions,  and  other  obstacles  to 
existence.  Why  do  plants  produce  such  a  great  number 
of  seeds? 

Secure  any  thrifty  plant,  six  to  ten  inches  high,  and  place 

its  roots  in  a  bottle  of  water  in  the  schoolroom.     Place  a 

bottle   of   the   same   size,   also   filled   with 

arts  of  water,    beside    it    for    comparison.     Note 

a  Plant 

after  a  day  or  two  that  more  water  has 

gone  from  the  bottle  containing  the  plant  than  from  the 
other.  The  plant  has  used  some  of  this  water.  Which  part 


or  THC 


METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

of  the  plant  has  taken  in  the  water  ?  What  would  happen  to 
a  plant  if  its  roots  were  placed  in  perfectly  dry  soil?  Call 
the  attention  of  pupils  to  the  root  hairs  near  the  growing 
tips  of  the  smallest  roots.  Tell  them  that  these  are  the 
parts  of  the  roots  that  take  water  from  the  soil.  What  else 
do  roots  take  from  the  soil  ?  In  what  form  must  plant  food 
be  before  the  roots  can  take  it  in? 

In  a  similar  manner  develop  the  use  of  the  stem,  leaves, 
buds,  flowers,  and  fruit  of  the  plant.  With  young  pupils 
this  should  be  done  very  simply,  but  with  the  aim  of  giving 
correct  ideas  of  the  uses  of  plant  organs  as  far  as  they  are 
able  to  understand  them.  With  older  pupils,  the  work 
should  be  carried  farther.  Such  subjects  as  osmosis,  sap 
circulation  (shown  by  the  use  of  colored  water),  transpira- 
tion by  the  leaves,  the  absorption  of  carbon  dioxide  from 
the  air,  and  the  giving  off  of  oxygen  by  the  green  parts  of 
the  plants  when  exposed  to  sunlight,  and  many  other  phases 
of  plant  physiology,  are  easily  shown  by  experiment,  and 
they  add  wonderfully  to  interest  and  understanding.  If  a 
compound  microscope  is  available,  the  pupils  will  be  much 
interested  in  seeing  the  stomata  of  leaves,  plant  cells,  and 
chlorophyl  grains.  The  latter  can  be  shown  best  in  a,  little 
green  scum  from  ponds. 

From  the  study  of  the  simple  plant  as  suggested  above, 
it  is  only  a  step  to  the  study  of  the  tree  through  its  annual 

cycle.  Let  the  class  adopt  some  individual 
The  Life  of  .  „  .  „  .  ., 

a  Tree  tree  as  the     class  tree.       Review  and  iden- 

tify the  parts  of  a  plant  as  found  in  a  tree. 
Have  the  class  note  in  a  series  of  properly  timed  lessons 
extending  through  the  year,  the  following  phases  of  the 
tree's  vegetative  activity,  beginning  soon  after  school  opens 


PLANT  STUDY 

in  the  autumn:  ripening  of  fruit;  dropping  of  leaves; 
period  of  rest,  during  which  a  study  of  twigs  and  buds  will 
be  found  very  interesting;  opening  flower  buds;  opening 
leaf  buds;  period  of  growth,  during  which  the  twigs  are 
lengthened  by  growth  of  the  terminal  bud  and  a  new  layer  of 
wood  deposited  just  under  the  bark  all  over  the  tree,  and  at 
the  same  time  an  inner  layer  added  to  the  bark ;  formation 
and  maturing  of  buds  for  next  year;  maturing  of  fruit 
(seeds).  During  the  study,  call  attention  to  the  means  by 
which  the  tree  heals  wounds  in  its  bark;  how  its  seeds  are 
dispersed  and  planted;  and  settle  with  the  class  such  ques- 
tions as  whether  or  not  the  heart  wood  grows,  and  whether 
the  bole  of  the  tree  lengthens  by  growth  near  the  ground. 
What  other  forms  of  life  are  found  in  the  tree?  Lichens? 
Moss?  Mistletoe?  Insects?  Birds?  Animals?  Extend 
the  work  to  other  trees  for  comparison.  Compare  with 
palm  or  other  endogen  if  available.  The  palm  grows  from 
a  single  bud  of  enormous  size.  This  bud  never  assumes 
the  dormant  form,  because  the  climate  of  the  tropics  is 
never  cold  enough  to  render  this  necessary.  In  the  endo- 
,gens  (inside  growers)  no  annual  rings  are  formed.  Note 
|  the  differences  between  the  seeds  and  the  venation  of  leaves 
of  exogens  and  endogens. 

In  the  germination  of  seeds  shallow  boxes,  three  to  five 
inches  in  depth,  are  best  for  indoor  work.     For  deepest 

interest  the  work  should  begin  before  the 
Semination  ,  ,  .  ,  , 

)f  Seeds  advent  of  the  growing  season  out  of  doors. 

Lima  beans,  peas,  pumpkins,  squash,  In- 
Han  corn,  and  some  of  the  larger  wild  seeds  from  the  seed 
ollections  will  be  found  well  adapted  to  the  work.  While 
/aiting  for  the  germination  of  the  planted  seeds,  have  the 


ISO  METHODS   IN    TEACHING 

pupils  examine  some  well-soaked  lima  beans.  They  should 
make  out  the  skin-like  outer  covering  and  the  small  open- 
ing near  the  scar  of  attachment  to  the  ovary.  This  opening 
admits  water  to  the  germinating  seed.  The  bean  shoulc 
then  be  split  and  the  parts  of  the  embryo  plant  made  out 
The  pupil  will  see  the  parts  better  if  he  is  asked  to  draw 
them.  Other  seeds  should  be  examined  in  a  similar  man- 
ner. The  embryo  of  Indian  corn  can  be  well  seen  by  split- 
ting the  grain  through  a  little  to  the  right  or  left  of  its 
center. 

When  the  young  plants  appear,  pupils  should  watrf 
closely  their  manner  of  breaking  the  soil  crust,  noting 
which  of  the  parts  previously  seen  in  the  seed  are  showr 
in  the  unfolding  of  the  young  plant.  Have  them  make  out 
the  seed  leaves  of  the  bean  and  pumpkin,  and  find  what  ha< 
become  of  the  body  of  the  seed  in  the  case  of  the  corn  anc 
peas.  Serial  drawings  will  help  them  in  remembering  th( 
stages  of  growth.  When  pupils  are  too  young  to  make 
these  satisfactorily,  blackboard  drawings  by  the  teacher  wil 
suffice.  By  questions  lead  the  pupils  to  see  that  the  con- 
ditions necessary  for  proper  germination  are  moisture,  heat 
and  air.  If  they  do  not  see  these  as  needful,  they  can  be 
readily  convinced  by  experiment.  Try  planting  some  seed; 
in  soil  that  is  constantly  soaked  with  water  to  the  exclusioi 
of  air.  Try  planting  lima  beans  with  the  opening  befor 
mentioned  just  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Plan 
others  at  the  same  depth  with  the  opening  down,  leavin 
the  back  of  the  seed  exposed.  Which  of  the  seeds  thv 
planted  develop?  The  use  of  the  seed  leaves  (cotyledons 
should  be  made  clear.  The  growth  of  the  roots  and  roc! 
hairs  can  be  better  seen  by  the  germination  of  a  few  radis1 


PLANT   STUDY  l8l 

seeds  or  grains  of  barley  on  gauze  or  cheese  cloth.  The 
material  should  be  tied  loosely  over  the  top  of  a  drinking 
glass  filled  with  water.  Invert  a  saucer  over  the  glass  until 
the  roots  of  the  germinating  seeds  reach  the  water  in  the 
glass.  This  forms  a  moist  chamber  in  which  the  seeds  will 
start  readily.  The  logical  continuation  of  the  work  thus 
begun  in  the  school  is  the  home  or  school  garden,  in  which 
the  planting  and  tending  are  done  by  the  pupils  under  the 
direction  of  the  teacher. 

For  the  simpler  work  with  flowers  have  the  pupils  bring 

to  school  the  first  wild  flowers  of  the  spring.     The  common 

names  are  written  on  the  board  with  the 

name  of  the  child  who  made  the  collection, 
otudy 

By  the  end  of  the  school  year  there  will  be 
established  a  speaking  acquaintance  with  the  common  wild 
flowers. 

For  pupils  of  the  higher  grades  the  work  may  be  ex- 
tended to  the  study  of  the  parts  of  a  perfect  flower  and  the 
uses  of  each  part.  Having  familiarized  themselves  with 
these,  the  problems  of  fertilization  (pollination)  and  cross 
fertilization  and  nature's  methods  for  insuring  these  vital 
processes  are  opened  to  the  pupils.  If  possible,  show  the 
growth  of  the  pollen  tube  from  the  pollen  grain  as  follows : 
Place  pollen  of  the  sweet-pea  in  a  ten  per  cent,  sugar  solu- 
tion. This  is  made  by  mixing  a  teaspoonful  of  thick  sugar 
syrup  with  nine  teaspoonfuls  of  water.  Examine  under 
the  low  power  of  the  microscope  two  or  three  times  at  inter- 
vals of  as  many  hours.  Explain  the  significance  of  this 
growth  to  the  pupils :  the  pollen  grain  adheres  to  the  sticky 
surface  of  the  stigma  and  sends  its  pollen  tube  down 
through  the  style  to  the  ovule  in  the  ovary.  The  proto- 


1 82  METHODS  IN  TEACHING 

plasm  of  the  pollen  grain  and  the  ovule  are  thus  united  in 
the  latter,  resulting  in  its  development  into  a  seed.  Let  the 
pupils  prove  by  experiment  that  pollination  is  necessary  for 
seed  production. 

For  the  purpose  of  study  flowers  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes:  those  that  depend  upon  the  wind  for  pollination; 
as,  Indian  corn,  willow,  walnut,  pine,  wheat,  and  other 
grasses.  Those  that  depend  upon  insects ;  this  class  includ- 
ing all  flowers  conspicuous  through  bright  colors  or  pecu- 
liarity of  form.  The  following  are  particularly  interesting 
for  study,  alfalfa,  Scotch  broom,  perennial  pea,  snap- 
dragon, evening  primrose,  milkweed,  Smyrna  fig,  the  mel- 
ons and  squashes,  and  the  perfect  and  imperfect  flowered 
varieties  of  the  strawberry.  Indian  corn  and  the  straw- 
berries are  especially  adapted  to  the  experiment  above  men- 
tioned. In  studying  the  milkweed  have  the  pupils  brush 
the  flowers  gently  over  the  hairs  on  the  back  of  the  hand. 
The  pollen  masses  will  be  found  tight-clutched  to  the  hairs. 
Catch  some  of  the  insects  that  visit  these  same  flowers; 
their  claws  and  long  hairs  will  often  be  found  loaded  with 
the  pollinia,  which  are  thus  dragged  over  the  stigmatic  sur- 
faces of  the  flower,  insuring  fertilization. 

Pupils  will  find  it  very  interesting  to  watch  insects  at 
work  among  the  flowers,  seeking  the  nectar,  or  pollen. 
Careful  observation  will  usually  disclose  the  method  by 
which  the  bee  or  other  flower-loving  insect  thus  becomes 
the  unconscious  but  indispensable  servant  of  the  plant. 
There  is  a  side  to  such  work  as  this  that  has  proved  more 
than  practical.  It  is  practice,  based  upon  wide  knowledge 
of  this  character,  that  enables  a  Luther  Burbank  to  produce 
fruits,  flowers,  and  other  plant  products  almost  to  order. 


PLANT  STUDY  183 

Plants  furnish  to  men  and  many  other  animals  a  very 
large  part  of  their  food  supply.  Perhaps  the  most  impor- 
tant foods  which  man  obtains  directly  from 
Food  plants  are  the  starches,  sugars,  and  oils. 

Formed  by  ^  ^e  starc^  producing  plants  the  follow- 

Plants  ing  are  well  known:  potato,  sago  palm, 

arrow-root,  the  manioc  from  which  tapioca 
is  derived,  rice,  and  the  common  cereals.  Mix  a  few  drops 
of  dilute  iodine  with  a  little  flour  paste,  and  note  that  the 
mixture  changes  immediately  to  a  bright  blue.  A  thin  sec- 
tion of  potato  treated  with  very  dilute  iodine  and  examined 
under  the  low  power  of  the  microscope  will  show  the  blue 
starch  grains  in  the  colorless  potato  cells. 

Sugar  is  derived  mainly  from  three  sources, — sugar  cane, 
beets,  and  the  evaporated  sap  of  the  maple  tree.  It  is  also 
found  in  many  ripe  fruits;  as,  grapes,  figs,  prunes,  apples, 
pears;  it  is  also  present  in  small  quantities  in  the  sap  of 
other  trees  than  the  maple,  notably  in  the  sugar  pine  of  the 
Pacific  slope.  Pupils  in  the  higher  grades  will  be  inter- 
ested in  knowing  that  sugar,  wood  fibre,  and  starch  are 
very  much  alike  chemically.  Each  is  a  chemical  union  of 
carbon  (charcoal  is  a  familiar  example)  and  water  in 
slightly  different  proportions.  The  following  experiment 
demonstrates  this  for  sugar: 

Fill  a  test-tube  about  one-sixth  full  of  thick  sugar  syrup. 
Add  the  same  amount  of  sulphuric  acid.  Set  the  tube  in 
a  glass  and  put  the  glass  on  a  piece  of  heavy  cardboard. 
Note  that  the  mixture  slowly  turns  brown  and  then  very 
black.  The  mixture  rises  in  the  tube  and  considerable  heat 
is  generated.  The  acid  has  decomposed  the  sugar  by  tak- 
ing out  the  water,  leaving  the  almost  pure  carbon.  If  the 


184  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

substance  is  now  washed  thoroughly  in  running  water  to 
free  it  from  all  traces  of  the  acid,  and  then  thoroughly 
dried,  it  is  found  to  be  quite  like  soot,  and  it  may  be  burned 
as  other  forms  of  carbon  are  burned.  Pupils  already  know, 
perhaps,  that  in  digestion  starch  is  converted  into  sugar. 
The  same  process  takes  place  in  the  ripening  of  some  fruits 
and  in  the  germination  of  starchy  seeds.  See  malt  and  beer 
making. 

Vegetable  fats,  also  nearly  pure  carbon,  are  obtained  from 
the  seeds  and  fruits  of  many  plants,  notably  the  olive,  cot- 
ton-seed, and  practically  all  the  nuts.  Other  vegetable  fats, 
as  turpentine  and  linseed  oil,  are  important  in  the  arts  and 
manufactures.  These  substances  are,  of  course,  stored  up 
for  the  plant's  own  use ;  man  and  other  animals  appropriate 
them  and  apply  them  to  needs  of  their  own. 

All  plants  store  food  in  their  seeds  or  in  those  parts  used 

as  seeds, — as  tubers,  bulbs,  spores.     This  stored   food  is 

manifestly  for  the  use  of  the  young  plant 

Food  until    it    becomes    able    to    support    itself. 

Substances  _  ,  .  . 

Stored  by  Other  plants  store  food   in  quantities   for 

Plants  the  purpose  of  having  a  large  amount  of 

quickly  available  material  out  of  which  the 
flower-stalk,  flowers,  and  seeds  are  formed  rapidly  in  the 
proper  season.  Some  of  these  mature  in  one  year ;  as,  rad- 
ishes, lettuce,  alfileria,  mullein,  and  many  others.  Some 
require  two  years  from  seed  to  seed  again ;  examples,  beet, 
carrot,  onion,  cabbage,  celery.  Still  others  require  several 
years,  as  is  the  case  with  the  so-called  century  plant. 

Food  is  thus  stored  in  the  roots,  as  in  parsnips,  radishes, 
beets,  turnips;  in  the  leaves,  as  in  cabbage,  lettuce,  and 
mullein;  in  the  leaf  bases,  as  in  celery,  onions,  and  lilies; 


PLANT   STUDY  185 

in  the  flower-stalk,  as  in  the  cauliflower;  in  portions  of  the 

stem,  as  in  the  potato ;  and  in  the  seed  cases,  as  in  the  fruits 

generally.     The  purpose  to  be  gained  with  the  fruits  seems 

to  be  to  cause  the  seeds  to  be  scattered.     This  is  largely 

accomplished  by  those  animals  which  use  the  fruit  for  food. 

Among  the  plants  useful  to  man  may  come  first  the  food 

plants.     These  may  be  divided  for  convenience  into  cereals, 

vegetables,  fruits.     Let  pupils  prepare  lists 

Useful  to  °*  those  that  are  Pr°duced  locally;  those 

Man  grown   in  other  portions   of  the   country; 

those  that  are  imported  from  other  coun- 
tries. Have  samples  of  the  most  important  ones  for  exam- 
ination. Which  part  of  the  plant  is  used  for  food?  What 
is  its  appearance?  Where  is  it  produced?  Etc.  Etc. 
Treat  similarly  the  textile  plants,  cotton,  flax,  ramie;  the 
timber  used  in  building  and  cabinet  making;  medicinal 
plants  may  also  be  considered. 

Besides  the  movements  of  growth  noticed  in  the  growing 
parts  of  any  plant,  there  are  a  number  of  motions  that  are 
very   interesting   when   shown   experimen- 
Movements  ta^v-     Some  of  these  movements  would  in- 

dicate that  plants  have  something  akin  to 
the  nervous  system  in  animals.  At  least,  certain  parts  of 
plants  have  sensibility  and  the  motion  that  results  from  it. 
The  common  sensitive  plant,  easily  grown  in  a  pot  or  box 
in  the  schoolroom,  furnishes  perhaps  the  best  illustration 
of  plant  motion.  Working  from  this  as  a  beginning,  pupils 
will  find  many  examples  of  flowers  that  either  close  their 
petals  or  droop  their  blossoms  at  night  to  protect  their  pol- 
len from  the  dew.  Many  flowers  also  show  a  more  or  less 


1 86  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

marked  inclination  to  follow  the  apparent  diurnal  motion 
of  the  sun.  The  leaves  of  many  plants,  notably  oxalis, 
varieties  of  acacia,  anemone,  and  lupines  are  folded  at  night 
or  during  stormy  weather.  The  movements  of  twining 
plants,  such  as  the  morning-glory,  pole-beans,  and  others 
can  be  studied  easily  from  plants  in  boxes  in  the  school- 
room. When  such  a  plant  begins  to  "  run,"  it  takes  a  slow 
revolving  motion,  the  tip  feeling  for  some  support  upon 
which  to  climb.  As  soon  as  this  is  found  the  twining  mo- 
tion begins.  What  is  the  direction  of  this  motion?  Is  it 
similar  or  opposite  to  the  motion  of  the  hands  of  a  clock? 
Do  any  plants  twine  in  the  opposite  direction? 

The  motion  of  tendrils  in  such  plants  as  peas,  grapes, 
passion  vines,  wild  cucumber,  and  pumpkin  is  also  easily 
seen.  Leaf  stems  of  some  plants  are  similarly  sensitive  and 
act  as  tendrils.  The  nasturtium  is  a  familiar  example. 
Root  tips  show  a  marked  sensibility.  This  enables  them  to 
seek  the  line  of  growth  that  offers  the  least  resistance  in 
their  extension  into  the  soil,  also  to  locate  plant  food  even 
at  a  considerable  distance.  The  following  is  a  simple  ex- 
periment that  will  illustrate  the  movement  of  root  tips: 

Suspend  several  peas  or  beans  in  a  moist  box  until  they 
begin  germinating.  To  the  growing  points  of  the  roots  of 
two  or  three  attach  a  very  small  bit  of  thin  card  by  means 
of  a  little  mucilage  or  glue.  Note  that  the  root  tips  so 
treated  tend  afterward  to  grow  toward  the  bit  of  card,  re- 
sulting in  very  crooked  roots.  The  roots  of  the  others 
grow  straight  downward. 

There  are  tramps  and  paupers  in  the  vegetable  world; 
they  are  the  parasites.  Through  parasitism  they  have  long 


PLANT  STUDY  1 8? 

lost  the  power  of  independent  existence.  The  different 
varieties  of  mistletoe  are  interesting  plants  that  never  have 
Parasitic  any  direct  connection  with  the  soil.  The 

Plants  viscid  material  surrounding  the  seeds  serves 

to  make  them  adhere  to  the  bark  of  trees,  where  they 
germinate  and  grow.  The  common  dodder,  or  love  vine, 
is  a  degenerate  morning-glory.  Its  seeds  germinate  in 
the  ground  as  other  seeds  do,  but,  unless  the  young  plant 
finds  a  host  upon  which  to  prey  before  the  food  substance 
of  the  seed  is  exhausted,  it  dies.  Through  disuse,  it  has 
lost  its  leaves,  which  are  represented  by  scale-like  organs 
that  are  functionless.  It  has  also  lost  the  power  to  pro- 
duce chlorophyl ;  hence,  the  absence  of  the  green  color  char- 
acteristic of  plants,  and  of  the  power  to  assimilate  plant 
food  taken  directly  from  the  soil.  Therefore  it  does  not 
retain  connection  with  the  soil  after  the  first  week  or  two 
of  its  life.  It  forms  its  snake-like  vines,  its  flowers,  and  its 
seeds  from  food  stolen  through  many  root-like  organs, 
which  it  thrusts  through  the  bark  of  its  host,  the  plant  upon 
which  it  lives.  This  parasite  is  known  by  its  yellow  or 
orange  color.  The  story  of  its  life  contains  a  strong  moral 
lesson  which  applies  to  human  affairs,  the  loss  of  power 
through  a  lack  of  use. 

A  subject  that  abounds  in  interest  for  pupils  and  that  is 
of  great  practical  value  is  the  propagation  of  plants.     Fill 

pots    or    boxes    with    coarse,    sharp    sand. 
Propagation 
of  Plants  Make  cuttings  of  two  or  three  buds  each. 

In  planting,  leave  one  bud  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  sand.  Keep  the  sand  moist,  not  wet.  Try 
cuttings  of  the  following  plants, — grape,  currant,  fig,  rose, 
geranium,  carnation,  and  chrysanthemum.  For  the  best 


l88  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

results  place  the  cuttings  in  the  sand  in  November  or  De- 
cember. In  the  spring  try  rooting  oleander  and  willow  in 
bottles  of  water. 

A  modification  of  propagation  by  cuttings  is  known  as 
layering.  A  branch  of  the  plant  from  which  the  cutting 
is  to  be  made  is  cut  partly  off  and  pegged  down  in  a  shal- 
low trench.  It  is  then  covered  with  soil  for  a  few  inches 
above  and  below  the  point  where  the  cut  was  made. 
Plants  which  refuse  ordinarily  to  grow  from  cuttings  root 
easily  by  this  method.  If  the  branch  to  be  rooted  is  part 
of  a  tree,  or  if,  for  any  reason,  it  can  not  be  bent  to  the 
ground,  it  can  be  layered  by  pegging  it  in  a  box  of  earth, 
which  is  placed  upon  a  support  high  enough  for  the  pur- 
pose. Very  interesting,  also,  are  the  processes  of  budding 
and  grafting,  so  indispensable  in  horticulture.  These  are 
very  simple,  easily  taught,  and  of  unquestionable  value  to 
any  pupil. 

The  work  of  plants  in  the  disintegration  of  rocks,  both 
by  growth  of  roots  into  faults  and  seams  of  rock  strata  and 
by  the  dissolving  action  of  acid  secretions 
Soil  Makers  w^  furnish  material  for  experiment  and 

discussion,  as  will  also  the  work  of  the 
roots  of  leguminous  plants,  clover,  peas,  etc.,  in  furnishing 
free  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  Have  pupils  dig  up  roots  of  clover 
and  examine  the  nodules  which  stud  them  thickly.  These 
nodules  contain  bacteria  which  have  the  power  of  making 
soil  nitrogen  from  that  in  the  air,  thus  making  it  available 
for  plant  food.  The  importance  of  this  work  will  be  better 
appreciated  by  pupils  if  they  understand  that,  of  the  plant 
foods,  nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  supply  to 


PLANT   STUDY  1 89 

soils.     It  explains,  also,  the  value  of  the  clover  crop  when 
used  in  rotation  with  other  crops. 

Discuss  with  pupils  the  work  of  plants  in  the  formation 
of  the  coal  series, — peat,  bitumen,  lignite,  bituminous  and 
anthracite  coal,  and  graphite.  Also  the 
effect  of  Plant  gr°wth  in  delta  regions  and 
low  coasts  in  holding  and  increasing  depo- 
sition of  sediments,  thus  adding  to  land  area.  In  this  con- 
nection mention  especially  the  swamp  grasses,  reeds,  man- 
groves, and  willows. 


CHAPTER  XI 

ANIMAL  STUDY:  THE  AQUARIUM;  THE  INSECT  CAGE; 
OTHER  ANIMALS 

At  least  two  lines  of  animal  study  will  commend  them- 
selves to  the  teacher  because  of  the  relatively  large  returns 
obtained  from  a  small  expenditure  of  time.  These  are  the 
study  of  life  by  means  of  the  aquarium  and  of  the  insect 
cage.  The  uses  of  the  aquarium  in  nature  study  are  so 

many  and  so  important  that  it  may  be  con- 
The 

Aquarium  sidered  almost  a  necessity.     To  be  success- 

ful with  the  aquarium,  we  must  imitate 
somewhat  closely  the  conditions  that  exist  in  open  ponds, 
for  these  are  natural  aquaria.  During  the  warmer  season 
such  ponds  teem  with  animal  and  vegetable  life.  Ponds 
present  a  great  amount  of  surface  to  the  air;  in  a  sense, 
they  breathe.  That  is,  they  are  constantly  giving  off  car- 
bon dioxide,  and  receiving  oxygen  by  diffusion.  In  ponds 
containing  a  large  amount  of  plant  life  this  exchange  is 
largely  between  the  water  and  the  plants.  Our  aquarium 
presents  relatively  less  surface  to  the  air,  so  it  must?  contain 
a  greater  amount  of  aquatic  plant  life,  such  as  normally 
produces  its  green  tissues  under  water.  Some  plants  of 
this  nature  are  the  different  varieties  of  swamp  grasses, 
water-crowfoot,  water  milfoil,  and  the"  fresh  water  algae. 
Plants  which  produce  their  green  parts  above  the  surface 
of  the  water  and  those  which  float  upon  it  do  not  supply 
oxygen  to  the  aquarium,  although  they  may  add  to  its 
beauty  or  may  serve  other  important  purposes. 

190 


ANIMAL  STUDY 

Any  clear-sided  vessel  having  a  large  mouth  and  a  capac- 
ity from  a  quart  up  may  be  used  in  the  study  of  some  form 
of  aquatic  life.    A  more  pretentious  rec- 
Vessei  tangular  aquarium  may  be  secured  at  mod- 

erate cost,  and  with  proper  care  will  be  an 
ornament  as  well  as  a  center  of  unfailing  interest  in  any 
schoolroom.  Having  secured  a  suitable  vessel,  place  in  the 
bottom  a  layer  of  washed  sand  and  gravel.  In  this  place 
cuttings  of  swamp  grasses,  bulbs  of  the  calla  or  arrow- 
leaf,  or  roots  of  the  umbrella  plant,  if  the  vessel  is  a  large 
one.  Fill  with  clear  water,  preferably  from  a  pond,  taking 
care  that  in  pouring  it  in  the  force  of  the  stream  is  broken 
so  that  the  material  already  in  the  bottom  is  not  disar- 
ranged. After  filling  add  water  milfoil  (myriophyllum), 
or  if  this  can  not  be  secured,  any  plant  that  grows  with 
its  green  part  submerged.  In  the  absence  of  more  suitable 
plants  fresh  water  alga,  the  green  scum  of  ponds,  may  be 
used.  If  this  is  used,  care  should  be  taken  to  secure  that 
which  is  in  vigorous  growth,  as  will  be  shown  by  its  bright 
green  color.  The  aquarium  is  now  ready  for  animal  life. 
Certain  forms  of  life,  although  living  in  the  water,  are 
air  breathers,  and  so  do  not  tend  to  exhaust  the  water  of 

its    oxygen.     The    aquarium    may    contain 

Animal  • 

Life  any  number  of  such   creatures,   consistent 

w^th'  the  food  supply.  Turtles,  water- 
beetles,  back-swirnmers,  water-boatmen,  and  the  larvae  of 
mosquitoes  and  gnats  are  of  this  kind.  Turtles  exist  upon 
animal  food,  which  should  be  supplied  very  sparingly,  as 
whatever  is  not  eaten  quickly  contaminates  the  water. 
They  are  not  ve$y  satisfactory  animals  for  the  aquarium, 
unless  it  is  very  large.  In  case  they  are  kept  a  float  should 


192  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

be  provided  for  them  to  climb  upon  when  they  wish  to  leave 
the  water.  The  insects  mentioned,  if  kept  in  reasonable 
numbers,  will  find  food  for  themselves.  Such  insects  are 
found  in  ponds  and  watering  troughs.  The  eggs  of  the 
mosquito  will  be  found  in  little  rafts,  which  look  like  flakes 
of  soot  floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water.  Placed  in  the 
aquarium  these  eggs  hatch  in  a  few  days.  Pupils  should 
see  the  insects  emerge  from  the  eggs  ;  they  should  continue 
their  observations  until  the  final  change  into  the  perfect 
insect  takes  place.  This  will  occur  in  from  ten  to  fourteen 
days  after  hatching.  For  close  examination  place  a  Half 
dozen  of  the  wrigglers  in  a  glass  of  water  and  use  a  hand 
lens  of  moderate  power.  Soon  after  hatching  mount  a 
very  small  one  in  a  drop  of  water.  Place  cover-slip  pn  it 
very  lightly  and  examine  under  the  low  power  of  a  com- 
pound microscope,  as  a  transparent  object.  Make  out  the 
digestive  canal,  mouthparts,  eyes,  and  the  air  tubes  (tra- 
chea) where  they  connect  with  the  breathing  pore  at  the 
caudal  end  of  the  insect.  Aside  from  their  nature  study 
value,  mosquito  larvae  furnish  food  to  other  animals  which 
may  be  kept  in  the  same  vessel. 

The  dragon  flies  are  also  very  interesting  creatures  for 
the   aquarium.     In   autumn,   along  the   reedy   margins   of 
permanent  ponds,  several  species  of  dragon 
fly   may   be   found   depositing   their   eggs. 


Certain  of  the  larger  species  pierce  the 
reed  stems  just  below  the  surface  of  the  water  with  the 
ovipositor,  and  deposit  the  eggs  in  the  slit-like  openings 
thus  made.  Watch  the  female  at  work,  and  when  she  has 
finished  cut  off  the  piece  of  reed  containing  the  eggs  and 
transfer  it  to  a  small  clear-sided  jar  of  water.  When  the 


ANIMAL  STUDY  193 

young  appear  a  week  or  two  later,  place  some  mosquito 
eggs  in  the  jar.  These  on  hatching  will  provide  food  for 
the  young  dragon  flies  for  a  time.  As  they  grow  larger, 
supply  any  small  soft-bodied  insects  or  even  small  earth- 
worms, in  addition  to  the  young  mosquitoes.  Still  later, 
small  poliwogs  will  be  acceptable  to  them.  Dragon  fly 
nymphs  are  voracious  feeders,  and,  if  their  food  is  not 
supplied,  they  will  eat  one  another.  Children  will  be  inter- 
ested in  their  manner  of  feeding,  breathing,  moulting,  and 
locomotion,  as  well  as  in  the  final  change  when  they  emerge 
from  the  water,  make  their  last  moult,  and  take  the  adult 
form.  This  should  occur  in  May  or  June;  and,  if  at  this 
time  there  are  no  plants  with  stems  projecting  above  the 
surface  of  the  water  in  the  aquarium,  some  reed  stems 
should  be  placed  in  it  for  them  to  crawl  out  upon.  The 
children  should  now  be  told  something  about  the  life  of  a 
fully  matured  insect.  Boys  know  it  as  the  "  mosquito 
hawk,"  "  darning  needle,"  "  snake  doctor,"  and  "  snake 
feeder."  Its  first  name  is  deserved,  for  it  does  feed  upon 
small  insects  taken  upon  the  wing;  but  the  last  names  are 
misleading,  as  it  sustains  no  known  relations  with  snakes. 
Water  beetles,  both  larvae  and  adults,  are  interesting 
objects  in  aquaria,  but  they  are  quite  destructive  to  other 

forms  of  life  with  which  they  are  associated 
Water 
Beetles  *n  nature-     ^  kept  alone  they  may  be  fed 

on  bits  of  fresh  meat,  earthworms,  tadpoles 
of  frogs.  The  larvae,  sometimes  called  water-tigers,  should 
be  kept  in  shallow  vessels,  as  they  are  air  breathers  and 
must  be  able  to  reach  the  surface  of  the  water  with  their 
breathing  organs. 
The  water  boatmen  and  the  backswimmers,  two  very 


194  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

active  water  bugs,  add  much  to  the  interest  in  the  aquarium 

by  their  rapid  movements  and  by  their 
Water  Boatmen  ..  ,,  ,  £  .  «  « , «  f  . 

_,    ,      .  peculiar  method  of  carrying:  a  bubble  of  air 

Backswimmers       r 

with  them  for  respiration.  Under  water, 
this  has  much  the  color  and  brightness  of  a  drop  of  mer- 
cury. 

Pond  snails  are  easily  obtained.     The  eggs,  deposited  on 
the  glass  or  on  stems  of  plants,  are  valuable  for  showing 

active  cell  division.  Mount  some  in  a  lit- 
Pond  Snails 

tie  water  in  a  watch  crystal,  and  examine 

with  a  microscope  of  low  power.  If  the  eggs  are  taken 
when  quite  fresh,  an  hour  or  two  after  they  are  deposited, 
the  beginning  of  segmentation  can  be  followed  for  the  first 
ten  hours,  or  until  the  cells  become  too  small  to  be  seen 
with  the  low  power.  Later,  the  developing  eye  and  heart 
can  be  made  out,  and  still  later,  the  motion  of  the  young 
snail  itself  in  the  egg.  These  snails  are  found  in  permanent 
ponds,  watering  troughs,  and  streams.  Daphne,  cy clops, 
and  other  "  water  fleas  "  are  very  small  crustaceans,  num- 
bers of  which  are  to  be  found  in  temporary  rain  ponds  in 
spring.  They  add  interest  and  furnish  food  for  other 
forms  of  life,  looking  out  for  themselves  and  requiring  no 
attention  on  the  part  of  those  who  care  for  the  aquarium. 

If  muck  from  the  bottom  of  a  permanent  pond  or  of  a 
sluggish  stream  is  used  on  the  floor  of  the  aquarium  instead 

of  the  layer  of  coarse  sand  or  gravel,  or  if 

Freshwater  ,  .    .        .      ,      .,     ,  .  . 

Mussel  muck  is  mixed  with  this  regular  cover- 

ing, a  small  specimen  of  the  fresh  water 

mussel  can  be  kept. 
With  the  first  heavy  rains  of  winter  and  spring  the  adult 

salamanders  appear  in  considerable  numbers  in  the  ponds. 


ANIMAL   STUDY  195 

Owing  to  their  nocturnal  habits  they  are  seen  by  com- 
paratively few  people.  They  are  easily  secured,  however, 

at  this  time  of  the  year  by  raking  out  the 
Salamanders  .  , 

leaves  and  other  debris  from  ponds.     These 

adults,  after  being  kept  a  few  days  for  examination,  should 
be  returned  to  the  ponds.  The  eggs  are  deposited  singly 
or  in  masses,  enclosed  in  a  jelly-like  substance  adhering  to 
twigs  or  to  the  stems  of  plants  in  the  ponds. 

Secure  the  eggs  as  fresh  as  possible,  place  them  in  small 
vessels,  and  note  development.  If  secured  very  soon  after 
being  deposited,  the  division  of  the  egg  can  be  seen  with 
the  unaided  eye.  Later,  note  the  formation  of  the  spinal 
groove  in  the  embryo ;  and  still  later,  just  before  the  young 
are  ready  to  hatch,  note  the  budding  and  growth  of  the 
external  gills  at  the  neck.  Two  or  three  days  after  hatch- 
ing, the  young  salamander  begins  to  feed.  At  first,  it  finds 
food  in  the  microscopic  forms  that  are  normally  present  in 
the  aquarium ;  later,  it  feeds  upon  the  water  fleas  and  mos- 
quito larvae ;  and,  still  later,  the  tadpoles  of  frogs  will  sup- 
ply its  needs.  In  the  absence  of  the  latter  it  may  be  given 
a  small  earthworm.  If  fed  in  this  way  it  soon  learns  to 
rise  and  take  food  from  the  hand  when  hungry. 

Note  that  the  young  salamander  is  fish-like  at  first,  and 
that  the  fore-legs  appear  soon  after  hatching  as  bud-like 
growths  just  behind  the  gills.  The  hind  legs  appear  much 
later.  A  few  days  after  hatching,  the  circulation  of  the 
blood  through  the  gills  can  be  most  beautifully  seen  under 
the  low  power  of  the  compound  microscope.  Place  the 
young  salamander  in  a  watch  crystal  of  water  and  examine 
the  gills  as  transparent  objects.  Note  that  the  blood  in 
such  small  amounts  is  not  red,  but  a  very  light  straw  color. 


196  METHODS  IN  TEACHING 

Explain  why  to  the  pupils.  Note  the  interruption  of  the 
blood  current  by  the  pulse.  Note  also  the  currents  of  water 
flowing  past  the  gills.  These  currents  are  kept  up  by  rap- 
idly moving  cilia,  difficult  to  see  even  with  the  high  powers, 
owing  to  their  small  size  and  rapid  motions. 

To  see  all  these  things  requires  time  and  much  patience, 
as  the  little  creature  frequently  moves  out  of  the  field  of 
view  and  must  be  brought  back  again  by  moving  the  watch 
glass  so  as  to  bring  the  animal  again  under  the  objective. 
It  is  worth  all  the  trouble,  however,  for  there  is  probably 
no  better  object  lesson  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 

A  little  later  in  the  season  the  frogs  and  toads  appear  in 
great  numbers  in  the  ponds,  adding  their  choruses  to  the 

other  subtle  sounds  and  influences  of  spring. 
Frogs 

The  eggs  are  similar  to  those  of  the  sala- 
mander, but  they  are  loosely  coherent  in  masses  of  fifty 
or  more,  attached  to  plants  or  floating  free  according  to 
the  species  by  which  they  are  deposited.  The  development 
of  the  tadpole  is  similar  to  that  of  the  larval  salamander. 
It  has  no  external  gills  except  when  very  young,  and  it 
feeds  almost  exclusively  upon  vegetable  matter.  The  legs 
develop  in  the  reverse  order  to  those  of  the  salamander,  and 
in  the  final  change  the  tail  is  completely  absorbed.  At  the 
same  time  the  digestive  system  undergoes  pronounced 
changes  to  fit  it  for  the  exclusive  insect  diet  of  the  adult 
stage.  Respiration  in  frogs  and  salamanders  takes  place 
not  only  through  the  gills,  but  through  the  skin  every- 
where, and  through  the  widely  expanded  tail-fin,  which  is 
plentifully  supplied  with  capillary  vessels.  In  the  adults 
of  both  forms  lungs  take  the  place  of  gills. 


ANIMAL  STUDY  1 97 

Fish  are,  perhaps,  the  leas,t  desirable  of  all  the  animals 

suited  to  aquaria.     One  or  two  very  small 
Fish 

fish  may  be  desirable  during  seasons  when 

other  material  is  scarce. 

The  price  of  success  in  all  work  with  the  aquarium  is 
extreme  care  against  overstocking  with  animals  which  take 

oxygen  directly  from  the  water.     For  the 
Caution 

best   practical    results   use   several   vessels 

having  capacities  of  from  one  to  six  quarts,  rather  than  one 
large  aquarium.  As  young  forms,  such  as  tadpoles,  de- 
velop, remove  all  but  two  or  three  of  each  kind,  as  crowded 
conditions  and  insufficient  food  are  fatal  to  good  results. 
Food  supply  is  very  important  with  the  young  of  all  ani- 
mals. Once  started,  the  whole  care  of  the  aquarium  may 
be  given  over  to  trusty  pupils. 

THE  INSECT  CAGE 

The  rearing  of  insects  in  an  insect  cage  is  much  simpler 
than  the  caring  for  animals  in  an  aquarium;  consequently, 
the  former  is  better  adapted  to  work  with  young  children, 
although  its  value  is  just  as  great  with  older  pupils. 

The  cages  may  be  very  simple, — a  flower  pot  with  a  wire 
cover,  a  small  box  or  a  glass  jar  with  a  little  slightly  moist 

earth  in  the  bottom,  or  a  more  elaborate 
The  Cage  ,  , 

affair  made  for  the  purpose.    A  good  form 

for  the  latter  is  a  rectangular  box,  two  feet  long,  one  foot 
wide,  and  sixteen  inches  high,  with  space  in  the  bottom 
for  a  tray  three  inches  deep  for  soil.  The  sides  may  be  of 
glass,  and,  to  secure  ventilation,  the  ends  may  be  of  wire 
screen.  The  lid  should  be  on  the  top  and  hinged;  it  may 


198  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

be  solid  or  covered  with  wire  screen.  Fill  the  tray  with 
loose  soil,  slightly  moist,  and  the  cage  is  ready  for  use. 

As  a  beginning  ask  the  pupils  to  bring  in  any  caterpillars, 

noting  on  what  plants  they  are  feeding  so  that  fresh  food 

may  be  supplied  every  day.     If  there  is  any 

difficulty  in  finding  caterpillars,  direct  the 

children  to  look  for  them  on  parsley,  sweet  anise,  milkweed, 

tomato,  cabbage,  tobacco,  and  cheese  weed.     Secure  some 

of  the  eggs,  for  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  pupils  see  the 

development  of  some  of  the  species  from  the  egg  stage. 

When  the  caterpillars  reach  full  development,  they  will 
become  restless  and  crawl  about  seeking  a  place  in  which 
to  make  their  transformation.  Note  whether  a  cocoon  is 
formed  or  the  chrysalis  is  simply  hung  in  position,  and 
how.  Some  of  the  caterpillars  found  in  the  early  spring 
and  late  summer  will  complete  their  changes  into  moths 
or  butterflies  in  a  few  weeks ;  others,  especially  those  taken 
rather  late  in  autumn,  will  remain  in  the  chrysalis  stage 
until  the  next  spring. 

The  eggs  of  grasshoppers  may  be  secured  in  autumn  by 
catching  the  females  and  allowing  them  to  deposit  their 
eggs  in  the  soil  in  the  bottom  of  the  cage.  Early  in  the 
spring  sow  barley  or  wheat  in  the  soil  to  furnish  food  for 
the  young  when  hatched.  Eggs  of  the  katydid  are  sure  to 
be  found  on  twigs.  Place  these  in  the  cage  for  hatching. 
The  young  will  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  black  walnut.  The 
caterpillars  of  the  sphynx  moths,  found  upon  the  tomato, 
tobacco,  and  grape,  burrow  into  the  soil  when  they  have 
finished  feeding. 

Other  insects  profitable  for  study  are  the  aphids,  or  plant 
lice ;  the  lady  bugs,  which  feed  upon  them ;  the  lace-winged 


ANIMAL  STUDY  1 99 

flies;  the  ant  lions,  which  form  the  curious,  funnel-shaped 
traps  for  catching  their  prey;  and,  where  the  leaves  of  the 
white  mulberry  are  found,  there  are  the  silkworms.  Any 
of  the  insects  mentioned  can  be  reared  successfully  in  a 
closed  cage  containing  a  little  soil,  if  there  is  good  ventila- 
tion and  a  daily  supply  of  fresh  food.  Most  caterpillars 
can  be  reared  in  open  pasteboard  boxes,  but  mice  destroy 
them,  and  they  wander  much  just  before  entering  the  chry- 
salis stage. 

LESSONS  ON  OTHER  ANIMALS 

In  the  lower  grades  it  will  be  found  worth  while  to  make 
comparative  studies  of  such  animals  as  the  chicken  and  the 
duck,  the  cat  and  the  rabbit,  the  dog  and  the  sheep,  the  cow 
and  the  horse,  and  other  familiar  animals.  Have  the  pupils 
discuss  under  guidance  and  in  a  comparative  way  struc- 
ture, food,  general  habits,  keenness  of  sight,  smell,  and 
hearing,  and  the  various  uses  of  animals  to  man. 

The  common  birds  should  be  known  by  name;  there 

should  be  discussions  on  the  habits  of  those 
Birds 

that  are  well  known, — nest-building,  food, 

song,  migration. 

Study  the  dog  as  to  the  general  features  of  his  structure. 
Compare  with  the  cat.     Tell  the  pupils  what  is  known  of 
the  origin  of  the  domestic  dog.     Discuss 
varieties  and  their  uses  to  man.     Lead  "the 
pupils  to  a  consideration  of  the  characteristics  which  make 
dogs    interesting    companions    or    servants, — faithfulness, 
affection,  obedience,  courage,  strength,  speed,  and  the  won- 
derfully keen  senses.     With  older  pupils  discuss  peculiar 
habits,  such  as  howling,  burying  bones,  turning  about  before 


2OO  METHODS   IN    TEACHING 

lying  down,  and  other  instinctive  acts  that  persist  to  link 
the  dog  to  his  wild  ancestry.  Discuss  the  wild  dogs, — 
wolf,  jackal,  hyena,  dingo,  fox. 

Discuss  with  older  pupils  the  importance  of  animals  in 

subsoiling  and  admitting  air  and  moisture  to  the  soil.     This 

is  performed  by  earthworms,  ants,  moles, 

SoHlatas  fidd    mice'   S°Phers>    Prairie    d°Ss>    ground 

squirrels,  and  by  the  animals  that  burrow 

or  bury  articles;  also  by  the  many  forms  of  animal  life 
that  hasten  the  decay  of  dead  trees  and  other  vegetable  mat- 
ter by  boring  and  tunneling,  thus  letting  in  air  and  mois- 
ture. 

In  connection  with  geography  discuss  the  animal  origin 
of  limestone,  chalk,  ana  coral  islands. 


CHAPTER  XII 

NON-LIVING  THINGS 

In  the  lower  grades  evaporation  may  be  presented  very 
simply.  Take  plenty  of  time  to  prove  that,  while  some  of 

the  water  that  disappears  after  a  rain  is 
Evaporation 

absorbed  into  the  ground,  much  of  it  passes 
into  the  air  as  invisible  water  vapor.  Show  that  water  in 
closed  vessels  will  remain  indefinitely,  while  that  in  open 
vessels  is  soon  taken  away  by  the  air.  Boiling  a  small 
quantity  of  water  shows  that  heat  hastens  evaporation. 

For  grades  above  the  first  two,  the  experiments  may  be 
extended  to  the  evaporation  of  volatile  liquids,  such  as 
alcohol,  gasoline,  ether,  chloroform,  carbon-bisulphide, 
cologne,  and  many  others.  Only  a  teaspoonful  or  two 
should  be  used  of  those  substances  which  vaporize  rapidly 
into  highly  inflammable  gases.  Pour  into  the  hollow  of 
a  pupil's  hand  a  small  amount  of  one  of  the  liquids  men- 
tioned, and  caution  him  not  to  spill  it.  The  liquid  soon 
disappears ;  if  it  has  a  strong  odor  it  can  be  smelled  through- 
out the  room,  so  helping  tell  the  story  of  its  diffusion 
through  the  air. 

'  Next  make  a  series  to  test  the  comparative  rapidity  of 
the  evaporation  of  several  liquids.  Arrange  small,  shallow 
dishes  with  labels  showing  what  each  one  is  to  contain. 
The  following  liquids  may  be  used, — glycerine,  water,  coal 
oil,  turpentine,  alcohol,  gasoline,  carbon-bisulphide,  and 
chloroform.  Use  equal  amounts  of  these  substances,  and 

201 


2O2  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

determine  the  order  of  the  rapidity  of  evaporation.  Satur- 
ate some  cotton  with  the  liquid  that  evaporates  most  rapidly, 
wrap  the  cotton  around  the  bulb  of  a  thermometer,  having 
first  noted  the  temperature  indicated  by  the  dry  bulb. 
Swing  the  thermometer  in  the  air  to  hasten  the  evapora- 
tion, and  note  the  rapid  fall  of  the  mercury.  Bring  out 
in  discussion  that  evaporation  cools  the  surface  from  which 
it  occurs.  Why  does  moistening  the  skin  even  with  warm 
water  make  it  feel  cooler  when  exposed  to  the  air?  Why 
does  it  feel  cooler  when  moistened  with  alcohol  or  ether 
instead  of  water?  Why  are  wet  cloths  put  around  jugs 
and  casks  of  drinking  water?  What  is  the  effect  of  the 
evaporation  of  perspiration  upon  the  temperature  of  the 
body?  Where  would  this  effect  be  greater,  in  regions 
where  the  air  is  moist  or  dry?  Why  are  sunstrokes  more 
common  in  moist  climates  than  in  dry  ones? 

Discuss  the   formation  of  dew,   fog,  clouds,   rain,   and 
snow.     Have  the  class  see  the  clouds  growing  larger  on 

days  when  there  is  a  falling  barometer,  and 
Condensation 

smaller  when  the  weather  is  clearing.  Dis- 
tinguish between  true  vapor,  which  is  invisible,  and  fogs 
and  clouds,  which  are  visible.  The  immense,  flat-bottomed 
cloud  masses  that  fill  the  sky  on  spring  days,  and  the  great 
cumulus  clouds  commonly  called  "  thunder  heads "  are. 
really  parts  of  vapor  masses  reaching  to  the  earth ;  only  the^ 
tops  are  visible,  however,  because  these  lie  in  currents 
of  air  sufficiently  cold  to  condense  them  into  fog.  The 
lower  and  warmer  layer  may  be  from  half  a  mile  to  a  mile 
in  depth.  Often  two  layers  of  air  can  be  made  out  above 
this,  when  the  clouds  at  different  heights  float  in  different 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  2O3 

directions.  In  quiet  weather  the  column  of  smoke  from  a 
large  fire  will  often  have  a  cloud-tipped  top.  Explain. 

It  is  a  fact  not  very  generally  known  that  water  vapor 
will  diffuse  through  a  vacuum  as  quickly  as  it  will  through 
air.  In  other  words,  the  presence  of  air  is  in  no  way  essen- 
tial to  the  process  of  evaporation,  which  is  even  prevented 
if  the  air  is  already  saturated  with  water  vapor.  Why  then 
does  not  the  earth  lose  some  of  its  water  supply  by  evapora- 
tion into  space?  Why  should  high  ranges  of  mountains 
prove  barriers  for  moisture  in  winds? 

Experiments  in  magnetism  are  full  of  interest  for  the 
younger  pupils.  These  should  include  a  study  of  both  the 

bar  and  the  horseshoe  magnet.     Show  the 
Magnetism 

lines   of   magnetic   force   by   covering   the 

magnet  with  a  sheet  of  paper  upon  which  iron  filings  are 
gently  sifted.  If  blue  print  paper  is  used  and  exposed  to 
sunshine  for  two  or  three  minutes,  a  permanent  print  may 
be  secured  showing  the  lines  of  force.  Suspend  magnetized 
needles  by  fine  silk  threads,  noting  their  direction  when  the 
motion  stops.  Show  the  practical  application  of  the  mag- 
net in  the  mariner's  compass.  What  other  uses  might  it 
have?  With  older  pupils  take  up  in  an  elementary  way 
the  electro-magnet  in  some  of  its  simpler  applications,  such 
as  the  electric  bell,  a  part  of  telephone  receivers,  telegraph 
instruments. 

•  Provide  a  florence   flask   fitted   with  a  rubber   stopper 
which  has  been  bored  to  fit  small  glass  tubing.     Secure  a 

piece  of  glass  tubing  five  or  six  feet  long; 
Expansion 
By  Heat  Put  xt  mto  "*e  °Penm§'  m  the  stopper  so 

that  all  connections  are  air  tight.     The  re- 
sulting piece  of  apparatus  is  of  course  full  of  air,  and  the 


2O4  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

attention  of  the  pupils  should  be  called  to  this  fact.  Im- 
merse the  free  end  of  the  glass  tube  in  a  shallow  dish  of 
water  and  clasp  the  bulb  (flask)  with  the  hands.  Almost 
immediately  bubbles  of  air  begin  to  escape  from  the  tube. 
Why?  Hold  the  bulb  some  distance  above  a  Bunsen 
burner  or  an  alcohol  lamp ;  heat  carefully,  until  as  much  of 
the  air  as  possible  has  been  driven  out.  Keeping  the  end 
of  the  tube  submerged  in  water,  allow  the  bulb  to  cool 
slowly;  note  that  water  travels  up  through  the  tube  into 
the  flask.  Why?  Now  empty  the  water  from  the  flask 
and  tube.  Warm  the  bulb  as  before  by  clasping  the  hands 
about  it.  When  a  small  amount  of  air  has  been  forced  out, 
let  the  bulb  cool  enough  to  suck  up  three  or  fouf  inches 
of  ink  or  colored  water.  Hold  the  flask  upright  and  let  the 
water  sink  through  the  tube  almost  to  the  bulb.  The  in- 
strument will  now  be  found  to  be  very  sensitive  to  the 
slightest  change  of  temperature  in  the  bulb,  the  short  col- 
umn of  water  being  forced  up  or  down  through  the  tube 
by  the  expansion  or  contraction  of  the  air  in  the  flask. 
With  a  little  practice  in  handling  this  "  air  thermometer," 
very  interesting,  positive  results  may  be  obtained.  In  such 
experiments  pupils  should  furnish  the  explanations  for  the 
phenomena  observed.  They  should  also  be  able  to  explain 
the  popping  of  corn  and  chestnuts  when  heat  is  applied, 
the  blowing  out  of  bicycle  tires  when  left  in  the  hot  sun, 
and  similar  occurrences. 

For  showing  the  expansion  of  liquids  the  same  apparatus 
can  be  used.  Fill  the  flask  full  of  water  that  has  been 
boiled  to  remove  the  air  and  afterward  allowed  to  become 
cold.  Press  the  stopper  into  the  mouth  of  the  flask  until 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  205 

the  water  rises  in  the  tube  a  few  inches.  Mark  the  height 
of  the  water  in  the  tube  by  tying  a  string  around  it  at  the 
point  to  which  the  water  rises.  Heat  the  flask  slowly  over 
a  gas  or  alcohol  flame,  and  note  the  rising  of  the  water  in 
the  tube.  Why  does  it  rise?  Does  it  expand  as  much  as 
air?  Which  is  more  elastic,  air  or  water?  Water  which 
has  been  expanded  to  a  gaseous  form  (steam)  is  very 
elastic. 

The  expansion  of  water  by  freezing  may  be  taken  up 
here  or  in  connection  with  dynamic  geography.  Experi- 
ments along  this  line  are  very  interesting  to  pupils.  Fill 
a  heavy  glass  bottle,  a  small  necked  one  is  best,  and  stop 
with  a  tight-fitting  cork.  Place  in  a  freezing  mixture  of 
broken  ice  and  salt.  In  a  few  minutes  the  bottle  is  broken 
in  pieces  by  the  expansion  of  the  freezing  water.  The  ex- 
periment is  more  striking  if  a  short  piece  of  heavy  iron  pipe 
is  used  instead  of  the  bottle.  The  pipe  should  be  capped 
at  the  ends  with  the  regulation  caps  or  plugs  used  by 
plumbers. 

For  the  purpose  of  showing  the  expansive  action  of  heat 
upon  metals,  secure  a  piece  of  brass  or  iron  tubing  about 
an  inch  in  diameter  and  six  inches  long  and  a  solid  brass 
or  iron  ball  which  will  just  pass  through  the  bore  of  the 
tube  when  both  are  cold.  If  the  tube  is  difficult  to  get, 
an  iron  ring  will  answer  the  purpose.  Heat  the  ball  a  few 
minutes,  and  it  will  be  found  too  large  to  go  through  the 
tube.  Set  the  tube  upright  in  a  shallow  vessel  with  the  ball 
resting  in  the  opening  at  the  top.  Pour  cold  water  upon 
the  ball,  which,  upon  cooling,  passes  easily  through  the  tube 
as  before.  Another  method  of  showing  the  same  effect  is 


2O6  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

as  follows :  Take  a  rod  of  iron,  copper,  or  brass,  about  two 
feet  long,  and  place  it  in  a  horizontal  position  with  one  end 
against  any  solid  object.  Let  the  other  end  touch  the  short 
arm  of  a  lever  which  acts  as  an  indicator.  Now  heat  the 
rod,  and  it  will  be  noticed  that  it  expands  and  moves  the 
indicator.  Why  does  the  blacksmith  heat  wagon  tires  be- 
fore putting  them  upon  the  wheels  ?  Why  are  small  spaces 
left  between  the  ends  of  rails  on  a  railway  ?  Why  does  the 
column  of  mercury  rise  in  warm  weather  and  fall  in  cold? 
In  connection  with  the  expansion  of  gases  and  liquids  by 
heat,  air  and  water  currents  may  be  taken  up.  For  the 
study  of  air  currents  there  should  be  pro- 
Water  Currents  v*ded  a  glass-sided  box,  air  tight,  except 
for  openings  which  may  be  closed  when 
necessary.  Such  a  box  may  be  eight  or  ten  inches  high, 
eighteen  inches  long,  and  from  six  to  ten  inches  wide.  The 
sides  should  be  of  glass,  puttied  in,  and  a  door  at  one  end 
should  be  as  nearly  air  tight  as  possible.  Augur  holes,  of 
a  size  that  they  may  be  closed  by  means  of  large  cork  stop- 
pers, should  be  bored  in  the  top  near  each  end,  and  som< 
may  also  be  bored  at  different  heights  in  the  end  opposite 
the  door.1  A  burning  candle  will  act  as  a  stove  in  the 
thus  made.  If  the  box  is  fairly  tight  and  all  openings  ai 
closed,  the  candle  flame  will  go  out  in  a  few  moments  aftei 
it  is  lighted.  Why?  Now  open  the  holes  at  the  top  am 
place  the  lighted  candle  under  one  of  them.  Test  the  din 
tion  of  the  air  currents  by  holding  smoking  punk  or  tou< 

aThe  glass-sided  box  described  above  is  very  satisfactory  for  tl 
work  indicated,  but  it  is  not  indispensable.  A  pasteboard  box  witl 
out  glass  may  be  used,  although  it  will  be  less  satisfactory. 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  2O/ 

paper1  over  the  opening  under  which  the  lighted  candle 
was  placed.  The  smoke  from  the  punk  indicates  the  true 
direction  of  the  air  current.  Now  hold  the  punk  near  the 
other  opening.  In  which  direction  is  the  air  moving  here? 
Which  is  lighter,  air  that  is  expanded  by  heat  or  cold  air? 
Explain  the  direction  of  the  currents  as  shown  by  the  move- 
ments of  the  smoke.  Take  the  temperature  of  the  school- 
room at  the  floor  and  at  the  ceiling.  Where  is  the  warmer 
air?  Why? 

Close  the  openings  at  the  top  of  the  box  and  open  two 
at  the  end,  one  near  the  bottom,  the  other  near  the  top. 
Test  with  the  burning  punk  as  before.  Which  shows  an 
inflowing  current,  the  upper  or  the  lower  opening?  Is  air 
flowing  out  of  the  other  opening?  Explain.  Make  clear 
the  cause  of  the  currents  thus  set  up.  Does  the  cooler, 
heavier  air  flow  in  to  take  the  place  of  the  warm  air  that  is 
rising,  or  does  the  cooler  air,  owing  to  its  greater  weight, 
cause  the  warmed  air  to  rise? 

On  a  quiet  day,  when  there  is  a  brisk  fire  in  the  school- 
room, close  all  openings  except  one  window.  This  should 
be  open  at  both  top  and  bottom  for  six  inches  or  a  foot. 
Test  the  air  at  the  bottom  to  find  the  direction  of  the  cur- 
rent by  suspending  a  light  sheet  of  paper  from  the  lower 
edge  of  the  window  sash.  Test  in  the  same  way  the  cur- 
rent through  the  upper  opening.  If  conditions  are  favor- 
able the  results  will  speak  for  themselves  very  definitely. 
Now  open  the  window  from  the  bottom  only  by  raising 
both  sashes  as  high  as  possible.  Test  the  upper  and  lower 

1  Touch  paper  is  easily  made  by  soaking  blotting  paper  in  a  sat- 
urated solution  of  saltpeter.  When  dry  the  paper  burns  slowly 
and  with  much  smoke,  making  a  good  substitute  for  Chinese  punk 
sticks. 


2O8  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

parts  of  this  opening  for  the  direction  of  the  air  currents. 
Explain.  Have  the  pupils  draw  a  diagram  of  the  room, 
representing  by  arrows  the  direction  of  the  air  currents  in 
it,  and  indicating  which  are  warm  and  which  are  cold. 

For  showing  currents  in  water,  fill  a  florence  flask  or 
other  thin-sided  glass  vessel  with  water  which  has  been 
previously  boiled  to  free  it  from  air  bubbles.  Floating  par- 
ticles of  sawdust  or  paper  may  be  placed  in  it  to  show  the 
movements  of  the  currents.  Heat  very  gently,  and  note  the 
results.  Or,  with  a  glass  tube  which  has  one  end  drawn 
to  a  fine  capillary  tube,  let  into  the  bottom  of  a  thin  glass 
jar  or  flask  some  ink  or  colored  water.  (The  vessel  should, 
of  course,  be  filled  with  water  before  this  is  done.)  Touch 
the  bottom  of  the  jar  with  a  heated  rod  or  with  the  blaze 
of  a  match,  and  a  column  of  ink  will  quickly  rise  from  the 
bottom.  This  is  a  striking  experiment,  but  its  preparation 
takes  some  time  and  patience. 

In  discussions  with  pupils  in  the  higher  grades  connect 
the  experiments  on  air  currents  with  the  larger  movements 
of  air  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
Air  Currents  Areas  of  low  pressure  are  heated  areas  in 
Over 
The  Earth  which  air  currents  are  moving  upward 

from  the  surface  of  the  earth;  they  are  in- 
dicated by  the  word  "  low  "  on  weather  charts.  "  Highs  " 
are  areas  in  which  cooled  masses  of  air  are  sinking  to  the 
surface  of  the  earth.  The  equatorial  calms  are  a  heated 
belt  characterized  by  upward  currents  of  air.  The  calms 
of  the  "  horse  latitudes  "  are  characterized  by  descending 
currents.  All  upward  movements  of  air  ("  lows  ")  tend  to 
produce  rain  storms;  downward  moving  masses  ("  highs  ") 
generally  indicate  fair  weather. 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  2 09 

Pupils  already  know  that  water  and  other  liquids  have 

weight.     Discuss   with   them   the   comparative   weight   of 

water,   oil,   molasses,   mercury,   and   other 

Pressure  of          liquids.     Construct    a    hydrometer    as    fol- 

Liquids  and 

GaseS(  lows:  Fit  a  piece  of  light  pine  about  the 

size  of  a  lead  pencil  into  a  large  cork,  one 
about  an  inch  in  diameter  by  an  inch  and  a  quarter  long 
will  do.  Load  the  bottom  of  the  cork,  so  that  when  placed 
in  a  deep  vessel  of  water  the  hydrometer  will  float  per- 
pendicularly. When  properly  loaded,  mark  carefully  upon 
the  stick  the  level  reached  when  the  instrument  floats  at  rest 
in  pure  water.  Why  does  the  instrument  float?  Because 
it  is  lighter  than  the  water  that  it  displaces.  That  is,  it  is 
lighter  than  the  amount  of  water  which  would  exactly  equal 
it  in  bulk.  To  prove  this,  fill  a  vessel  holding  a  gallon  or 
more  brimful  of  water.  Set  this  in  a  larger  vessel  that  will 
catch  the  overflow.  Select  some  object  that  is  heavy  enough 
to  give  a  considerable  displacement  and  that  does  not  water- 
soak.  A  drinking  glass  will  do.  If  too  light  at  the  bot- 
tom to  float  upright,  load  it  with  a  few  nails  or  shot  or  even 
sand.  Place  it  in  the  full  vessel,  and  have  the  class  note 
that  as  it  sinks  to  its  level  the  water  overflows  into  the  larger 
vessel.  Now  weigh  both  the  object  used  as  a  float  and  the 
water  that  overflowed,  and  the  weights  will  be  found  to  be 
equal. 

When  pupils  understand  this  simple  demonstration  of  the 
law  of  floating  bodies  as  it  applies  to  objects  in  water,  dis- 
cuss with  them  the  density  of  different  liquids.  What 
liquids  are  lighter  than  water?  Those  most  easily  secured 
for  experiment  are  alcohol  and  the  various  kinds  of  oils. 
Liquids  heavier  than  water  are  salt  water,  sugar  solutions, 
15 


2IO  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

molasses,  and  mercury.     Test  with  the  hydrometer.     Test 
mercury  with  shot,  pieces  of  iron,  and  pebbles. 

Into  a  test-tube  about  six  inches  long  and  one  inch  in 
diameter  put  equal  amounts  of  water,  mercury,  and  oil. 
Do  the  liquids  mix?  Drop  a  buck-shot  or  other  small 
piece  of  metal  into  the  tube.  Note  that  it  sinks  in  both 
the  water  and  the  oil  but  that  it  floats  on  the  mercury.  By 
careful  trial  find  a  substance  that  floats  on  water  but  which 
is  too  heavy  to  float  on  oil ;  and,  finally,  find  some  substance 
that  is  light  enough  to  float  on  gasoline.  Cork  the  tube 
tightly,  invert  it,  and  note  that  the  liquids  rearrange  them- 
selves according  to  their  several  weights.  Demonstrate  by 
means  of  the  hydrometer  that  strong  salt  water  is  heavier 
than  fresh  water.  Show  the  same  fact  by  actually  weigh- 
ing equal  amounts. 

Water  weighs  about  sixty-two  and  a  half  pounds  to  the 
cubic  foot.  In  a  tank,  ten  feet  deep,  what  is  the  pressure 
on  each  square  foot  of  the  bottom  when  the  tank  is  filled 
with  water?  Would  a  fish  near  the  bottom  of  the  tank 
be  under  a  greater  pressure  than  one  near  the  top  ?  Divers 
can  work  successfully  only  in  comparatively  shallow  waters, 
from  fifteen  to  thirty-five  or  forty  feet  deep.  Why?  Why 
are  tanks  for  private  water  supply  usually  placed  high  above 
the  ground?  Have  you  ever  seen  standpipes  used  in  con- 
nection with  city  water  systems?  Why  are  they  used? 

We  live  at  the  bottom  of  a  great  sea  of  air  which  is  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  fifty  to  four  hundred  miles  deep. 
The  pressure  at  the  bottom  is  equal  to  the 
water  pressure   at  the  bottom   of   a  tank 
about  thirty  feet  deep.     Our  bodies,  developing  under  this 
constant  pressure,   are  not  only  used  to  the  tremendous 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  211 

weight  thus  always  borne,  but  they  need  it  to  keep  them  in 
compact,  solid  form.  Thus  air  seems  to  us  as  nothing, 
except  in  its  unusual  manifestations.  We  commonly  say 
that  a  vessel  is  empty  when  it  is  full  of  air,  and  the  fact 
that  air  and  other  invisible  gases  are  really  forms  of  matter 
is  not  always  easy  to  make  plain  to  the  child  mind. 

In  the  lower  grades  this  fact  should  be  made  plain  by 
discussion  and  by  simple  experiments.     Discuss  with  the 
children  the  movements  of  air  that  can  be  felt, — the  blow- 
ing of  the  wind ;  rising  currents  from  heated  stoves ;  move- 
ments of  clouds,  which  are  simply  masses  of  fog  high  above 
the  earth,  floating  in  variable  currents  of  air ;  the  movement 
i  dust  and  other  light  objects  or  even  of  small  pebbles  by 
wind.     We  can  hear,  feel,  and  in  a  sense  even  see  air. 
supports  the  bird  in  its  flight,  the  boys'  kites,  and  toy 
alloons.     Under  compression  it  is  even  used  for  cushions 
nd  mattresses;  it  can  be  made  solid  enough  to  sustain 
reat  weight,  as  when  it  is  pumped  into  bicycle  and  auto- 
lobile  tires,  thus  being  greatly  compressed. 
Invert  a  jar  and  force  it  mouth  down  into  a  vessel  that 
ontains  water.     Does  the  water  rise  to  fill  the  jar?    Why 
ot?     Fill  a  drinking  glass  nearly  full  of  water.     Put  a 
ard  over  its  mouth  and  invert  the  glass,  holding  the  card 
uring  the  process.     Now  take  the  hand  away  from  the 
ard;  it  will  be  found  that  the  card  remains  in  place  and 
lat  the  water  does  not  flow  out.     Why  not?     Now  lower 
ie  glass  mouth  down  into  a  vessel  of  water,  and  as  soon  as 
is  touching  the  water  remove  the  card.     The  water  still 
emains  in  the  glass.    Why?    With  a  crooked  tube  let  air 
ito  the  upper  part  of  the  glass,  and  the  water  flows  out 
ntil  it  reaches  the  level  of  that  in  the  vessel.     Why  ?     Fas- 


212  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

ten  a  toy  balloon  to  a  glass  tube  ten  inches  in  length,  and 
thrust  the  other  end  upward  through  a  bored  cork  that  will 
fit  a  large  florence  flask.  Thrust  the  end  having  the  balloon 
attached  into  the  flask  until  the  cork  fits  snugly  the  mouth 
of  the  flask.  Try  to  inflate  the  balloon  by  forcing  air  into 
the  outer  end  of  the  tube.  It  can  not  be  done.  Why  not? 
Withdraw  the  cork  a  very  little  way,  inflate  the  balloon,  and 
replace  the  cork.  The  balloon  remains  inflated.  Why? 
Take  two  test-tubes,  one  of  which  is  enough  smaller  than 
the  other  to  slide  easily  into  it.  Fill  the  larger  one  nearly 
full  of  water ;  put  the  end  of  the  smaller  tube  into  the  larger 
one  until  it  displaces  the  water  to  a  depth  of  about  an  inch 
and  a  half.  Invert  the  tubes  in  this  position  over  a  vessel 
to  catch  the  water.  As  the  water  slowly  trickles  out  of  the 
larger  tube,  air  pressure  forces  the  smaller  one  into  it. 
This  is  a  very  striking  experiment  for  pupils  of  any  grade 
above  the  fourth. 

Another  that  holds  interest  quite  as  well  is  the  following : 
Secure  a  board,  two  feet  long,  ten  inches  wide,  and  half 
an  inch  thick.  It  should  be  of  tough  wood.  Place  it  upon 
a  table  or  desk  so  that  nearly  half  of  it  projects  over  the 
edge.  Now  spread  two  or  three  thicknesses  of  newspaper 
over  the  end  that  is  on  the  table.  Direct  one  of  the  stronger 
boys  of  the  class  to  strike  a  quick,  heavy  blow  downward  o 
the  projecting  end.  The  class,  as  well  as  the  boy,  will 
greatly  surprised  to  find  that  the  board  is  scarcely  moved; 
owing  to  air  pressure  acting  upon  the  board  and  paperj 
The  paper,  of  course,  simply  prevents  air  from  passinj 
quickly  under  the  board.  Thus  the  blow  meets  the  resis! 
tance  of  the  pressure  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  board,  th; 
whole  of  which  in  this  case  would  amount  to  nearly  a  tori 


NON-LIVING  THINGS 

Other  manifestations  and  uses  of  air  pressure  are  seen  in 
the  use  of  the  siphon  and  the  common  lifting  pump. 

The  measure  of  air  pressure  may  be  taken  up  with  pupils 
of  the  sixth  grade  and  above.  Introductory  to  the  work 
of  making  a  barometer  the  follo'^^tigf  will  be  helpful :  Bend 
a  piece  of  glass  tubing  into  the  form  of  the  letter  U.  Fill 
the  bend  of  the  tube  with  mercury,  and  have  the  class  note 
that  when  the  tube  is  perpendicular  the  mercury  stands  at 
the  same  height  in  both  sides.  Call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  the  air  presses  with  equal  weight  on  the  mercury  in 
both  tubes.  Ask  the  class  what  would  be  the  effect  of  blow- 
ing into  one  of  the  tubes,  thus  increasing  the  pressure  on 
that  side.  This  they  will  readily  see.  What  is  the  effect 
of  sucking  some  of  the  air  out  of  one  of  the  tubes  ?  Why  ? 
Be  sure  that  the  class  sees  that  difference  in  the  force  of 
air  pressure  makes  the  mercury  stand  higher  in  the  tube 
in  which  the  air  pressure  has  been  reduced  by  drawing  out 
some  of  the  air. 

The  making  of  the  barometer  should  follow.  For  this 
the  following  will  be  needed :  A  piece  of  glass  tubing  about 

thirty-six  inches  long  and  one-fourth  of  an 
Barometer 

inch  in  diameter  inside.     This  tube  should 

be  closed  at  one  end.  A  piece  of  tube,  the  same  diameter, 
twelve  inches  long,  and  open  at  both  ends.  Two  pieces  of 
strong  rubber  tubing,  about  six  inches  long,  and  large 
enough  to  fit  snugly  over  the  ends  of  the  glass  tubes. 
Enough  mercury  to  a  little  more  than  fill  the  longer  tube. 
A  small  funnel  having  a  stem  equal  in  diameter  to  that  of 
the  glass  tube. 

Connect  the  open  end  of  the  long  tube  to  the  shorter  tube 
by  means  of  the  rubber  hose.  This  should  be  tied  tightly 


214  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 


with  stout  string  at  both  connections.  In  the  same  way 
connect  the  funnel  to  the  free  end  of  the  short  tube.  Now 
run  a  straight  wire  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube  thus  formed, 
leaving  a  few  ind^Hfcrojecting  from  the  mouth  of  the 
funnel.  Pour  the  m^Bpy  in  very  slowly,  being  careful  to 
dislodge  air  bubbles  by  means  of  the  wire.  When  the  wire 
is  finally  removed,  the  mercury  should  a  little  more  than  fill 
the  longer  tube.  Remove  the  funnel  and  its  rubber  connec- 
tion. Keeping  the  short  tube  in  a  perpendicular  position, 
elevate  the  longer  one  until  it  is  parallel  with  it.  Notice 
as  the  longer  tube  assumes  the  vertical  position,  that  the 
mercury  falls  a  few  inches  in  it  and  that  there  is  a  corre- 
sponding rise  in  the  short  tube.  How  much  air  pressure 
in  the  closed  end  of  the  long  tube  ?  Pupils  readily  see  that 
there  is  none,  for  there  is  no  air  there  and  the  tube  is  closed. 
They  also  see  that  at  the  open  end  of  the  short  tube  air 
pressure  acts  normally.  With  a  little  thought  they  will  be 
able  to  see  that  the  weight  of  the  column  of  mercury  is  sup- 
ported by  air  pressure  acting  upon  the  surface  of  the  mer- 
cury in  the  short  open  tube.  Would  the  same  result  be 
reached  if  the  tubes  were  either  larger  or  smaller?  Yes. 
What  is  the  height  of  the  column  of  mercury  supported? 
(Measure  from  the  level  of  the  column  of  mercury  in  the 
short  tube.)  If  near  the  sea  level,  it  should  approximate 
thirty  inches.  A  column  of  mercury  one  inch  square  and 
thirty  inches  high  weighs  fifteen  pounds.  Could  we  make 
a  water  barometer?  How  long  would  the  longer  tube  be? 
Why  can  not  water  be  pumped  with  an  ordinary  lifting 
pump  more  than  thirty  feet  above  the  water  level  in  the  well 
or  soil? 

Work  in  solution  and  crystallization  may  be  undertaken 


215 

with  pupils  in  any/$  the  grades.  Pupils  should  provide 
themselves  with  pfeces  of  common  window  glass,  about  five 
Solution  and  or  six  incnes  squam,  Prepare  a  saturated 
Crystalliza-  solution  (one  inj|  Hi  there  is  as  much  of 


any  given  substlp^as  will  dissolve  in  the 
fluid)  of  common  salt,  and  put  a  small  puddle  of  it  upon  the 
pupils'  pieces  of  glass.  If  the  weather  is  dry  and  warm, 
salt  crystals  begin  to  appear  in  a  few  minutes.  Watch  their 
formation,  using  low  power  microscopes  or  hand  magnifiers, 
if  available.  For  larger  crystals  pour  some  of  the  solution 
into  a  glass  or  small  dish  and  set  it  away  for  a  few  days. 
When  the  water  has  evaporated,  discuss  the  shape  and  size 
of  the  crystals,  how  trry  form,  the  time  required,  and  many 
other  points  noticed.  Then  try  solutions  of  sulphate  of  cop- 
per ("blue  stone"),  saltpeter,  borax,  epsom  salts,  hyposul- 
phite of  soda,  or  any  other  crystalline  substance  soluble  in 
water. 

With  older  pupils  extend  the  work  by  considering  sub- 
stances soluble  in  alcohol,  as  shellac,  camphor  gum,  or 
crystals  of  iodine ;  substances  soluble  in  oils,  as  resin,  solu- 
ble in  coal  oil  or  gasoline;  paraffin,  soluble  in  turpentine; 
lime,  soluble  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  With  these  simple 
experiments  as  a  basis,  discuss  any  crystalline  rocks  which 
may  be  found  in  the  region,  such  as  crystal  quartz,  granite, 
marble,  calcareous  spar,  stalactite  formations.  Call  atten- 
tion to  the  different  forms  in  which  some  substances  are 
found,  as  in  the  case  of  carbon,  which  may  be  in  the  form 
of  a  gas,  common  charcoal,  mineral  coal ;  as  a  part  of  veg- 
etable and  animal  tissues;  graphite,  of  which  lead  pencils 
are  made ;  or  the  crystalline  diamond,  which  because  of  its 


2l6  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

beauty,  its  rarity,  and  its  durability,  is  one  of  the  most 
valued  of  gems. 

Children  in  general  have  little  knowledge  of  the  common 
metals.     Specimens  of  these  arc  easily  secured,  and  should 

form  a  part  of  every  school  equipment. 
Metals  Where  practicable,  there  should  also  be  a 

collection  of  the  common  metallic  ores.  Of 
the  various  useful  metals  perhaps  iron  is  best  known;  for 
this  reason  it  should  be  studied  first.  Draw  from  the  class 
what  is  already  known  concerning  the  sources  of  the  iron 
supply  in  this  country;  distinguish  between  the  terms 
wrought  iron,  cast  iron;  steel  and  cast  steel.  Discuss  with 
the  class  such  properties  of  iron  as  its  strength,  hardness 
in  various  forms,  elasticity  in  tempered  steel,  weight,  color, 
and  ductility.  Discuss  its  uses,  adapting  the  discussion  to 
the  age  and  experience  of  the  pupils.  Direct  attention  to 
some  of  the  many  ways  in  which  it  is  used  in  the  school- 
room or  building;  in  the  home;  in  the  city.  What  Andi- 
tions  hasten  its  decomposition?  (Oxidation  or  nf^ng.) 
Why  do  we  paint  iron?  By  what  other  means 'do  we  ex- 
clude the  air  from  iron  and  steel?  The  use  of  oil,  zinc, 
tin,  or  silver  for  these  purposes.  The  use  of  iron  as  a  con- 
ductor of  heat.  Compare  with  wood  in  this  respect;  with 
copper;  lead;  aluminum.  For  this  purpose  place  rods  of 
several  different  metals  in  such  a  position  that  one  end  of 
each  is  in  contact  with  an  alcohol  or  gas  flame.  At  the 
same  distance  from  the  heating  ends  of  the  rods,  stick 
pieces  of  paraffin  or  tallow.  Note  on  which  one  of  the  rods 
the  tallow  melts  soonest,  and  the  order  in  which  it  melts  on 
all  of  them.  Which  metal  is  the  best  conductor  of  heat? 
Which  is  the  poorest? 


NON-LIVING  THINGS 

The  following  list  of  metals  is  suggested  for  a  continu- 
ance of  the  work:  lead,  tin,  copper,  zinc,  aluminum,  silver, 
and  that  to  the  child  most  interesting  of  all  metals,  mercury. 
Compare  each  with  iron  in  suclj,;  properties  as  hardness, 
weight,  strength;  and  discuss  uses.  Discuss  also  important 
alloys,  as  hfonze  and  brass;  also  the  reasons  for  making 
alloys,  \jmere  sufficient  heat  is  easily  available,  young 
childrentfspecially  will  be  much  interested  in  seeing  lead 
used  in  casting  bullets  or  even  poured  into  cold 
it  takes  on  peculiar  shapes.  Mercury,  at  ordi- 
na^temperatures,  remains  in  the  melted  state.  At  a  tem- 
perature of  forty  degrees  below  zero,  Fahrenheit,  however, 
it  hardens  to  a  form  somewhat  like  lead. 

SIMPLE  CHEMISTRY  OF  AIR 

Provide  a  couple  of  ordinary  candy  jars;  a  shallow 
trough  or  basin  with  a  capacity  of  two  to  four  gallons; 
some  rubber  and  glass  tubing,  one- fourth  inch  in  diameter; 
ancrm  few  medium-sized  test-tubes  with  corks  to  fit.  Have 
also  some  short  pieces  of  wax  or  tallow  candle,  an  ounce 
or  two  of  potassium  chlorate,  three  or  four  ounces  of  man- 
ganese dioxide  (black  oxide),  and  an  alcohol  lamp. 

Experiment. — Place  a  short  piece  of  candle  upon  a  float 
that  is  small  enough  to  go  easily  into  the  mouth  of  the  candy 
jar.  Float  the  candle  in  an  inch  of  water  in  a  plate.  Light 
the  candle  and  invert  the  candy  jar  over  it,  letting  its  edge 
sink  into  the  shallow  water.  Call  the  attention  of  the 
pupils  to  the  fact  that  the  jar  is  filled  with  air.  At  first, 
the  flame  burns  brightly,  but  it  soon  grows  dim  and  small, 
and  after  a  few  moments  it  goes  out.  Repeat  the  experi- 
ment, noting  the  water  that  rises  into  the  jar.  Why  is  the 


2l8  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

I 

flame  extinguished?  If  no  one  is  able  to  answer,  explain, 
and  repeat  the  experiment.  Why  does  the  water  rise  as  the 
candle  burns  and  for  a  short  time  after  it  is  extinguished? 
Has  any  part  of  the  air  been  actually  used  ?  Can  anything 
be  burned  in  it  now  ?  Slip  a  piece  of  pasteboard  under  the 
mouth  of  the  jar  and  hold  it  in  place  while  the  jar  is  turned 
right  side  up.  Light  a  taper  and  thrust  it  into  the  jar. 
Does  it  burn?  No.  Now  invert  the  jar  over  a  piece  of 
burning  candle  on  the  table.  Can  air  get  into  it  now? 
The  candle  burns  for  a  time  and  then  goes  out.  Lift  the 
jar  gently  while  still  warm,  cover,  and  turn  right  side  up. 
Pour  into  the  jar  about  a  tablespoonful  of  clear  lime  water, 
and  shake  it  thoroughly.  Note  that  it  turns  milky,  showing 
the  presence  of  carbon  dioxide.  Explain  the  lime  water 
test  to  pupils,  and  as  a  control  experiment,  shake  some  lime 
water  in  a  vessel  filled  with  pure  air.  The  absence  of  milki- 
ness  indicates  that,  if  carbon  dioxide  is  present  at  all  in 
pure  air,  it  is  only  in  very  minute  quantity.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  it  is  about  five  parts  in  ten  thousand. 

Fill  a  jar  with  water,  place  a  card  over  its  mouth,  and 

invert  into  a  vessel  which  already  contains  an  inch  or  two 

of  water  with  a  capacity  for  at  least  as 

Collecting  much  more  as  the  jar  contains.     Insert  the 

Defacement  end  of  the  deliveI7  tube  under  the  edge 
of  the  inverted  jar,  and  the  gas  as  gener- 
ated will  displace  the  water.  Collect  Jb^  the  above  method 
a  jar  of  breathed  air,  and  test  for  oxygen  and  carbon  diox- 
ide: the  former,  by  means  of  the  lighted  taper;  and  the 
latter,  with  lime  water.  Repeat  several  times,  if  necessary, 
until  the  pupils  see  that  air  that  has  supported  burning  and 
air  that  has  been  breathed  are  very  much  alike  in  the  fact 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  2IQ 

that  they  are  both  deficient  in  oxygen  and  contain  an  excess 
of  carbon  dioxide.  Collect  another  jar  of  breathed  air. 
If  the  breath  is  held  for  a  few  seconds  the  results  will  be 
more  positive.  Test  for  oxygen.  It  does  not  support  a 
flame.  Place  a  branch  of  some  plant  with  fresh  green 
leaves  upon  it  in  the  jar.  Invert  the  jar  into  a  vessel  of 
water  as  before,  and  put  it  into  the  sunlight.  After  two 
or  three  hours,  test  for  oxygen ;  it  will  be  found  to  be  pres- 
ent. Test  for  carbon  dioxide.  It  has  been  absorbed  by 
the  plant  and  water. 

Place  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  pulverized  potassium 
chlorate  and  "  black  oxide  "  in  a  test-tube.     Cork  with  a 

bored  cork,  which  has  tightly  fitted  into  it 
Qx  en  a  delivery  tube  composed  of  eight  or  ten 

inches  of  quarter  inch  glass  tube  and  about 
two  feet  of  rubber  tubing.  Heat  the  test-tube  over  an  al- 
cohol or  gas  lamp,  and  collect  by  displacement  the  gas  that 
is  thus  generated.  This  gas  is  oxygen.  Test  it  by  thrust- 
ing into  it  a  piece  of  charcoal  with  a  small  spark  of  fire 
upon  it,  or  a  burning  splinter  after  the  blaze  is  extinguished, 
leaving  a  tiny,  glowing  coal  at  the  end.  In  the  oxygen 
these  tiny  sparks  spring  into  life  and  burn  fiercely.  In  a 
gas  that  so  actively  supports  combustion  green  twigs,  thin 
pieces  of  steel,  as  watch  springs,  and  fine  wire,  burn  bril- 
liantly, and  drops  of  the  molten  metal  fall  to  the  bottom  of 
the  jar.  Two  or  three  inches  of  water  left  in  the  bottom 
of  the  jar  will  cool  these  and  prevent  the  glass  cracking  in 
the  intense  heat. 

In  a  bottle  holding  about  a  quart,  put  a  few  marble  chips 
or  a  couple  of  ounces  of  baking  soda,  and  add  water  until 


22O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

the^fcottle  is  a  little  more  than  half  full.    The  cork  for 

the  bottle  should  be  bored  for  the  delivery  tube  and  for  a 

"  thistle,"  or  funnel  tube.    The  delivery  tube 

Dioxide  should  have  about  two  feet  of  rubber  tubing 

attached  to  the   outer   end,  and   its   inner 

end  should  extend  only  just  through  the  cork.     Pour  small 

quantities  of  either  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid  into  the 

bottle  by  means  of  the  funnel  tube,  which  should  reach 

almost  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle. 

The  gas  that  is  given  off  is  carbon  dioxide ;  it  may  either 
be  collected  by  displacement  or,  by  reason  of  its  being  con- 
siderably heavier  than  air,  it  may  be  allowed  to  flow  into 
any  deep  vessel  in  a  room  where  the  air  is  quiet.  When 
sufficient  amount  is  secured,  test  it  by  a  burning  paper. 
Does  it  support  burning?  Would  it  support  animal  life? 
If  the  jar  is  large  enough,  drop  a  small,  light  soap-bubble 
into  it,  and  notice  that  it  floats  in  the  gas  much  as  a  rubber 
balloon  would  float  in  water.  It  may  be  dipped  and  poured, 
run  through  troughs  and  pipes,  or  it  may  be  siphoned  like 
heavier  liquids.  Make  a  deep  trough  of  pasteboard  and 
place  short,  burning  candles  in  the  bottom.  Pour  the  heavy 
gas  into  the  trough,  after  elevating  one  end  of  it,  and  note 
that  the  lights  are  extinguished  in  order  as  it  flows  down 
over  them. 

Call  attention  of  the  pupils  to  other  forms  of  oxidation 
besides  burning  and  breathing ;  such  as  decay  of  animal  and 
vegetable  tissues,  fermentation,  and  the  oxidation  of  met- 
als,— iron,  zinc,  lead,  copper.  How  is  the  oxygen  thus  used 
up  replaced  in  the  air?  In  connection  with  the  experiments 
with  carbon  dioxide,  discuss  with  the  pupils  "  choke  damp  " 
of  mines,  and  the  "  damps  "  that  are  sometimes  found  in 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  221 

wells  and  deep  vats.  How  do  people  test  wells  for  damps, 
and  thus  know  whether  it  is  safe  to  descend  into  them? 
How  are  such  collections  of  the  gas,  carbon  dioxide,  re- 
moved ?  % 

Place  a  piece  of  lime  the  size  of  a  walnut  in  a  quart  of 

water.    Twenty-four  hours  later,  pour  off  the  clear  water, 

taking  care  not  to  disturb  the  lime  at  the 

To  Prepare  bottom.     The  lime  water  thus  simply  pre- 

Lime  Water  .     . 

pared  is  as  good  for  all  purposes  as  is  that 

bought  from  druggists. 

Nitrogen  can  be  separated  from  the  other  constituents 
of  the  air  by  burning  a  piece  of  phosphorus  the  size  of  a 

pea,  instead  of  the  candle,  as  in  the  first 
Nitrogen 

experiment  with  air.     The  dense  white  gas 

formed  is  phosphoric  oxide.  It  is  rapidly  absorbed  by  the 
water,  leaving  nearly  pure  nitrogen.  Care  should  be  used 
in  handling  the  phosphorus,  and  the  gas  should  not  be 
allowed  to  escape  into  the  room. 

Experiments  in  combustion  may  either  precede  or  follow 
or  be  given  with  the  study  of  air,  as  the  subjects  are  closely 

interrelated.     Substances  which  burn  with 
Combustion  . 

a  flame  are  always  those  which,  under  cer- 
tain conditions,  give  off  combustible  vapors  or  gases ;  those 
which  glow  by  incandescence  but  from  no  flame  are  com- 
monly some  form  of  more  or  less  pure  carbon,  as  charcoal, 
coke.  The  following  experiments  will  serve  to  illustrate: 
In  different  glasses  place  a  few  drops  of  carbon-bisul- 
phide, gasoline,  and  alcohol.  Cover  the  glasses  for  two  or 
three  minutes  to  allow  the  different  liquids  to  vaporize  and 
mix  with  air.  Remove  the  cover  and  apply  a  red-hot  wire 
to  the  mouth  of  the  glass  containing  the  carbon-bisulphide. 


222  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

It  flashes.  Try  in  the  same  manner  the  other  two  sub- 
stances. If  they  fail  to  ignite  in  this  way,  try  the  flame  of 
a  burning  taper,  and  they  flash  as  did  the  carbon-bisulphide. 
Place  about  a  teaspoonful  of  each  of  the  substances  in 
saucers  or  shallow  dishes.  By  trial,  show  that  each  ignites 
easily  and  burns  with  a  flame.  Extreme  care  should  be 
used  when  handling  such  substances.  Only  small  quanti- 
ties should  be  used  at  a  time,  and  the  rest  should  be  kept 
in  tightly  closed  vessels.  Children  should  also  be  taught 
the  extremely  dangerous  character  of  highly  inflammable 
liquids  such  as  these,  and  the  reasons  why  they  are  so. 
Discuss  with  them  the  difference  between  these  liquids, 
which  are  very  volatile — that  is,  throwing  off  large  quan- 
tities of  inflammable  vapors  at  ordinary  temperatures — and 
those  liquids  which  give  off  such  vapors  only  when  heated. 

Place  a  small  quantity  of  kerosene  in  a  saucer  and  try  to 
light  it  by  means  of  a  match  or  taper.  It  refuses  to  burn. 
Now  place  a  small  quantity  in  a  beaker  and  heat  until  it 
nearly  boils.  Try  the  taper  in  the  air  above  the  mouth  of 
the  beaker.  It  flashes  about  as  gasoline  flashes  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  and  continues  to  burn.  Take  hold  of  the 
two  ends  of  a  sheet  of  paper  and  bring  it  down  quickly  to 
the  mouth  of  the  beaker  so  as  to  exclude  the  air.  The 
flame  goes  out.  Why?  Discuss  the  best  means  of  extin- 
guishing burning  clothing,  oil,  etc. 

Test  various  other  fats  and  gums:  first,  by  trying  to  set 
fire  to  them  cold;  then  by  melting  them  and  trying  the 
melted  form;  and  finally,  by  heating  until  the  inflammable 
gases  are  given  off,  when  they  will  flash  readily.  The  fol- 
lowing can  be  tested  easily  by  heating  in  an  ordinary  tin 
tablespoon: — butter,  lard,  tallow,  paraffin,  pitch,  and  resin. 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  223 

Each  is  found  to  flash  when  heated  to  the  point  where  it 
vaporizes  freely.  To  show  that  the  blaze  from  burning 
paper,  wood,  or  coal  is  due  to  inflammable  gases  given  off 
by  heating,  try  the  following: 

To  show  gas  from  paper,  cut  strips  of  foolscap  or  other 
heavy  writing  paper  an  inch  and  a  half  wide,  and  as  long 
as  possible  up  to  eighteen  inches.  Roll  into  tapers,  folding 
the  larger  end  to  prevent  unrolling.  Light  the  small  end, 
and  after  the  flame  has  traveled  up  the  lighter  three  or  four 
inches,  note  that  there  is  still  a  flame  at  the  small  end,  al- 
though the  paper  is  evidently  burned.  Blow  the  lower 
flame  out  gently  and  observe  that  a  dense  gray  "  smoke  " 
pours  out  in  its  place.  Collect  a  quantity  of  this  in  a  wide- 
mouthed  bottle.  Stop  the  bottle  and  set  aside  for  a  few 
minutes.  While  waiting  for  this,  repeat  the  experiment  by 
filling  another  bottle  or  a  test-tube  with  the  "  smoke/' 
While  it  is  still  hot  apply  the  flame  of  the  taper  to  it  and 
note  that  it  flashes  somewhat  as  did  the  vapor  of  gasoline, 
leaving  the  bottle  clear.  Examine  the  bottle  that  was  set 
aside.  If  sufficient  time  has  elapsed  the  "  smoke  "  should 
have  entirely  disappeared.  Examine  the  sides  of  the  bot- 
tle for  a  yellowish  liquid, — creosote.  Discuss  the  results 
with  the  pupils.  Was  what  we  called  smoke  really  smoke 
or  was  it  gas  ?  that  is,  an  inflammable  vapor  ?  Can  this  gas 
be  burned  after  it  is  cool,  or  must  it  be  heated  to  reach  its 
flashing  point?  Repeat  the  experiment  if  necessary. 
After  burning  some  of  the  gas  from  the  bottle,  test  the  air 
that  remains  for  carbon  dioxide.  What  is  the  result? 
Draw  from  the  pupils  the  fact  that  the  heat  of  the  flame 
on  the  outside  of  the  taper  drives  the  gas  off  from  the 
inner  surface.  Why  does  not  this  burn  at  the  point  where 


224  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

it  is  formed  inside  the  paper  tube?  What  prevents  the  air 
from  entering  the  tube?  Why  does  not  the  flame  travel 
through  a  gas  pipe  when  we  light  the  gas  at  the  burner? 
Collect  some  ordinary  illuminating  gas  by  displacement  in 
a  wide-mouthed  jar;  a  quart  fruit  jar  will  answer.  Light 
the  pure  gas  and  note  that  it  burns  rather  slowly  from  the 
top  downward.  Repeat,  by  filling  the  jar  with  about  one 
fourth  gas  and  three  fourths  air.  Light  with  a  long  taper 
and  note  that  the  whole  mixture  flashes  at  once.  In  this 
connection  discuss  the  blow-pipe,  also  the  bunsen  gas 
burner,  and  the  common  gas  stove  burners,  which  have 
devices  for  mixing  the  gas  with  air  and  thus  developing 
great  heat  by  securing  more  rapid  combustion. 

Verify  the  taper  experiments  by  placing  a  small  quantity 
of  torn  paper  in  a  baking-powder  can  (not  soldered),  and 
heating  it  over  a  gas  or  alcohol  flame.  When  the  gray 
vapor  begins  to  rise  in  considerable  quantity,  test  with 
lighter.  Does  it  flash  as  before?  What  produces  the 
flame,  the  solid  paper  or  the  gas  that  is  driven  off  by  the 
heat?  Repeat  the  experiment,  substituting  small  pieces  of 
wood  for  the  paper.  Compare  results  with  those  of  the 
previous  experiment.  What  is  left  in  the  can  after  the 
vapor  ceases  to  be  given  off?  Compare  with  common  char- 
coal. Can  this  be  burned  ?  Will  it  produce  a  flame  ? 
Heat  until  incandescent,  and  catch  some  of  the  gas  that  is 
now  given  off  by  inverting  a  glass  over  it  for  a  moment. 
Test  the  contents  of  the  glass  for  carbon  dioxide.  The 
charcoal  can  be  burned  in  shorter  time  if  air  is  admitted 
by  perforating  the  can  near  the  bottom  for  this  last  experi- 
ment. 

The  experiment  can  be  made  a  little  more  striking  by 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  22$ 

using  a  section  of  thin  gas  pipe,  properly  capped  and  fitted 
with  a  delivery  tube.  Place  some  dry  sawdust  in  the  pipe 
and  shake  it  down  into  the  end  to  be  heated.  Heat  over 
alcohol  or  gas  flame  until  the  vapor  passes  from  the  de- 
livery tube  in  a  sufficient  quantity  to  light.  With  the  same 
apparatus  use  pulverized  soft  coal  instead  of  sawdust.  By 
heating  the  coal  gas  is  generated,  which  may  be  burned 
similarly  at  the  end  of  the  delivery  tube. 

By  use  of  this  simple  generator  collect  a  small  quantity 
of  creosote  by  condensing  the  gas  from  paper  or  wood. 
Show  the  pupils  that  this  liquid  can  be  expanded  again  into 
gas  by  heat.  Place  a  few  drops  of  the  liquid  in  the  barrel 
of  a  bicycle  pump,  and  heat  over  the  alcohol  lamp.  The 
liquid  expands  again  into  the  heavy,  gray  gas,  and  flashes 
into  flame  on  being  tested  with  a  lighted  taper. 

For  experiments  with  a  candle  flame,  a  large  candle  is 

so  much  better  than  a  small  one  that  it  pays  to  make  it  if 

it  can  not  be  secured  otherwise.     A  mold 

Experiments  for  this  purpose  can  be  made  by  rolling 
with  the  .  . 

Candle  Flame        heavy  writing  PaPer  into  a  tube  about  an 
inch  and  a  quarter  in  diameter.     The  wick 
should  be  several  times  the  size  of  common  candle  wicking. 
When  this  candle  is  lighted  it  does  not  catch  as  readily 
as  the  wick  of  a  kerosene  lamp.     Why  not?    At  first,  the 
flame  burns  low,  afterward  it  increases  in  size  and  bril- 
liancy.    Why?     Call  attention  to  its  shape,  which  is  the 
result  of  molding  by  air  currents.     Tell  the  pupils  that  its 
color  is  due  to  particles  of  carbon  (soot)  made  incandescent 
by  heat.     Hold  a  cold  slip  of  glass  in  the  flame  for  a  mo- 
ment, and  show  the  carbon  that  condenses  upon  its  surface. 
Some  of  this  carbon  can  be  seen  escaping  unburned  from 
16 


226  METHODS  IN  TEACHING 

the  flame,  which  is  not  hot  enough  to  consume  it  all.  Com- 
pare the  flame  in  this  respect  with  the  flame  of  a  kerosene 
lamp  without  the  chimney.  The  effect  of  the  chimney  is  to 
cause  this  carbon  smoke  to  be  completely  consumed,  thus 
making  the  flame  larger  and  brighter.  Is  the  flame  of  the 
lamp  hotter  with  or  without  the  chimney?  Call  attention 
to  the  dark  area  in  the  center  of  the  candle  flame.  Thrust 
a  toothpick  through  the  base  of  the  flame  and  hold  it  there 
until  it  begins  to  burn.  Remove  it  quickly  and  blow  out 
the  flame.  Note  that  it  began  to  burn  at  the  two  places 
in  contact  with  the  outer  surfaces  of  the  flame,  but  that  it 
did  not  burn  in  the  middle  of  the  flame.  The  flame  is  hol- 
low. Why?  Because  air  does  not  get  into  the  center  and 
nothing  can  burn  without  oxygen.  What  is  in  this  central 
portion  that  we  have  said  was  hollow?  Take  a  piece  of 
glass  tubing  about  ten  inches  long,  and,  holding  it  at  an 
angle  of  about  45°,  thrust  its  lower  end  into  the  dark  cen- 
ter of  the  flame.  A  gray  gas,  reminding  us  of  the  gas 
from  the  paper  lighter,  rises  through  the  tube.  Have  some 
pupil  light  this  at  the  upper  end  of  the  tube.  Discuss  its 
origin,  and,  if  necessary,  heat  a  small  piece  of  tallow  in  a 
spoon  until  it  vaporizes  and  takes  fire?  When  pupils  rec- 
ognize this  gas  as  vaporized  tallow,  ask  again  why  it  does 
not  burn  in  the  center  of  the  candle  flame?  To  fix  this 
point  still  further,  thrust  the  head  of  a  sulphur  match  into 
the  dark  center  of  the  flame,  and  call  attention  to  the  fact 
that  it  does  not  at  once  take  fire  and  burn,  although  it  may 
blacken  by  heat.  When  removed,  it  immediately  takes  fire. 
Try  again,  this  time  only  touching  the  head  of  the  match 
to  the  outer  surface  of  the  flame,  where  the  air  reaches  it. 
What  is  the  result? 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  22/ 

Blow  out  the  candle,  noting  that  much  gray  gas  rises 
from  the  wick  while  it  is  still  hot.  Condense  some  of  this 
by  holding  in  it  a  piece  of  clean,  cold  glass.  Let  the  pupils 
see  that  it  is  really  tallow,  which  assumes  its  original  form 
when  condensed  and  cold.  Relight  the  candle,  and,  when 
it  burns  brightly,  extinguish  the  flame  as  before.  Have  a 
paper  tube  half  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter  and  six  to  ten 
inches  long;  hold  it  so  that  the  gas  flows  upward  through 
it.  Light  the  gas  at  the  upper  end  of  the  tube,  and  note 
that  the  flame  travels  quickly  down  to  the  wick,  relighting 
the  candle. 

The  study  of  combustion  can  be  extended  indefinitely, 
according  to  the  maturity  of  the  pupils  and  the  interest 
manifested.  The  work  as  here  described  has  been  found 
suited  to  our  fifth  and  sixth  grades,  but  much  of  it  will 
bear  repeating  in  grades  as  high  as  the  eighth.  It  requires 
little  in  the  way  of  apparatus  that  can  not  be  made  by  the 
teacher  and  the  pupils,  and  it  results  in  an  insight  into  many 
of  the  common  things  that  none  of  us  understand  too  well. 
With  older  pupils  interest  may  be  added  to  the  work  by  dis- 
cussions on  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas,  gas  and 
gasoline  engines,  and  many  other  things  connected  directly 
with  combustion. 

Teach  pupils  the  relation  of  the  moon  to  the  earth,  the 
relation  of  the  earth  and  the  moon  to  the  sun,  and  the  re- 
sultant phases  of  the  moon.    Teach   also 
Sky  Lessons 

the  relation  of  the  earth  to  other  planets  of 

the  solar  system,  and  the  differences  between  planets  and 
stars.  The  constellations  may  also  be  taken  up  simply  by 
mapping  them  upon  the  blackboard  and  asking  the  pupils 


228  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

to  look  for  them  at  night.  They  should  know,  of  course, 
whereabouts  in  the  heavens  to  look  for  a  given  constella- 
tion at  a  certain  hour. 

The  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  may  be  shown  by  mark- 
ing the  position  of  shadows  or  spots  of  sunlight  in  the 
schoolroom  at  different  times  during  the  year.  The  shadow 
should  be  marked  at  about  the  same  time,  about  twelve 
o'clock,  every  day  that  it  is  observed.  If  sunlight  does  not 
enter  the  room  at  that  time,  the  class  may  be  taken  into  the 
yard,  and  the  shadow  of  any  stationary  object,  as  a  post  or 
a  part  of  the  building  itself,  may  be  used  for  the  purpose. 
The  length  of  the  shadow  should  be  noted,  especially  at  or 
near  the  beginning  of  the  different  seasons. 

Permanently  fasten  the  barometer  described  elsewhere  to 
a  board,  and  tack  beside  it  a  yard  stick,  so  that  variations 
in  the  height  of  the  column  of  mercury  can 
Studies  ke    seen   easily.     Note   the   height   of   the 

column  in  clear,  cool  weather,  and  use  this 
as  a  standard  for  future  observations.  Call  attention  to 
any  changes,  until  pupils  form  the  habit  of  making  use  of 
the  barometer  in  the  study  of  climatic  conditions.  Dry, 
dense  air  is  heavier  than  moist,  expanded  air.  Therefore 
low  barometer  indicates  storm  conditions,  and  high  barom- 
eter indicates  fair  weather.  Study  other  local  weather 
changes,  the  direction  of  winds  and  clouds  when  storms  are 
approaching,  and  their  direction  in  clearing  weather  which 
follows  the  storm.  Local  weather  signs,  if  they  are  at  all 
reliable,  should  be  noted  and  discussed  with  a  view  to  their 
better  understanding.  Daily  weather  records  become  verj 
monotonous  and  are  not  to  be  recommended;  but  observj 


NON-LIVING  THINGS  229 

tions  may  be  recorded  once  a  week  or  oftener  by  the  class, 
if  results  justify  so  doing. 

In  the  absence  of  an  organized  course  in  physiology  for 
the  several  grades,  based  upon  adopted  texts,  health  lessons 

on  such  subjects  as  the  following  will  meet 
Lessons  *^e  more  seri°us  needs: — The  skin.  Its 

structure,  glands,  and  other  organs,  includ- 
ing perspiratory  and  sebaceous  glands,  organs  of  touch, 
temperature,  and  pain;  its  appendages, — in  man,  hair  and 
nails ;  in  other  animals,  feathers,  claws,  hoofs,  horns,  beaks, 
and  spurs;  its  functions,  including  excretion,  regulation  of 
temperature,  and  protection  of  underlying  organs,  and  its 
hygiene,  including  massage  and  bathing.  In  a  similar  way 
the  muscles,  teeth,  digestive  organs,  nervous  system,  may 
be  treated. 

Work  under  the  head  of  alcohol  and  narcotics  should  be 
well  considered  and  tactfully  presented.     Some  knowledge 

of  the  nervous  system  is  almost  imperative 
Alcohol  for  the  success  Of  the  work  with  older 

and 
Narcotics  pupils,  as  it  is  upon  this  system  that  the 

profound  effects  of  these  things  are  pro- 
duced. The  effect  of  the  use  of  tobacco  upon  growing 
minds  and  bodies  should  be  emphasized  with  young  pupils. 
In  general  a  stronger  case  is  made  against  alcohol  and 
other  narcotics  by  emphasizing  the  moral  rather  than  the 
physical  effects ;  but  boys  at  the  age  when  interest  in  athlet- 
ics begins  to  develop,  are  deeply  impressed  by  the  fact  that 
these  things  are  inimical  to  normal  muscular  development. 
Teachers  should  not  forget  that  it  is  through  curiosity 
purely  that  most  boys  begin  to  tamper  with  tobacco  and 
alcoholic  drinks. 


23O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

In  the  space  here  available  it  is  impossible  to  do  more 
than   suggest  subjects   and  treatment.     Such   suggestions 

will  not,  of  course,  take  the  place  of  text- 
Conclusion 

books  m  the  various  subjects  from  which 

work  is  taken,  and  which  should  form  a  part  of  every  school 
library. 


CHAPTER  XIII1 

GEOGRAPHY 

Geography  has  been  defined  as  the  study  of  the  earth  and 
man's  relation  to  it,  but  that  which  holds  the  attention  of 
the  student  is  rather,  as  is  claimed  by  Dr.  Charles  A.  Mc- 
Murry,  "  the  interaction  between  man  and  earth."  The 
pupil  should  know  more  than  the  location  of  places  and  the 
boundaries  of  countries,  he  should  also  have  some  concep- 
tion of  his  own  social  relation  to  the  various  parts  of  the 
world.  This  requires  that  he  must  first  gain  a  knowledge 
of  his  own  country,  its  institutions,  industries,  products, 
physical  features,  climatic  conditions,  and  its  commercial 
relations  with  other  countries,  for  the  value  of  the  knowl- 
edge itself  and  as  an  illustrative  basis  for  the  comprehen- 
sion of  conditions  in  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  pupil 
gains  this  knowledge  just  in  proportion  as  it  arouses  his 
interest  and  is  grasped  by  his  understanding.  The  normal 
child  is  blessed  with  curiosity;  a  keen  desire  to  know;  an 
intense  interest  in  natural  phenomena,  in  his  neighbors,  in 
industries,  in  commerce,  in  government.  The  satisfaction 
of  this  curiosity  is  the  keynote  to  success  in  education. 
Only  when  the  world  is  made  unreal  and  foreign  to  the 
child  does  he  lose  touch  with  it. 

Geography  may  be  divided  into  physical  and  social  stud- 
ies. Under  the  former  are  grouped  those  conditions  with 

1Much  of  the  subject  matter  of  this  chapter  has  been  furnished 
by  Mr.  S.  H.  Cohn  of  the  Stockton  schools. 

231 


232  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

which  nature  has  surrounded  man,  as  the  physiographic  and 
mathematical  features;  under  the  latter  belong  the  condi- 
tions with  which  man  has  surrounded  him- 
Divisions  of  ir  ... 

Geography  self>  as  those  Plaining  to  commerce,  agri- 

culture, government.  Development  of  civ- 
ilization is  to  a  great  extent  dependent  upon  environments ; 
but  a  child  begins  his  study  at  the  other  end  of  the  evolu- 
tion, with  results  instead  of  causes,  with  the  realities  around 
him  that  are  the  results  of  man's  efforts,  passing  later  to  the 
natural  conditions  and  laws  that  govern  his  surroundings, 
and  that  promote  or  retard  his  development.  The  newer 
teaching  recognizes  what  the  older  treatment  overlooked, 
that  the  study  of  geography  must  be  based  upon  material 
within  the  experience  of  the  child,  for  all  knowledge  is  con- 
crete or  it  has  a  concrete  standard  of  comparison.  In  order 
to  secure  this  knowledge,  to  widen  the  child's  mental  hori- 
zon, to  add  to  the  sum  of  his  experiences,  to  establish  units 
of  comparison,  two  ideas  have  come  to  take  the  lead  in  the 
methods  of  prominent  teachers  of  geography, — the  excur- 
sion and  the  establishment  of  a  type  form.  That  is,  obser- 
vation and  representation. 

Seeing  is  more  than  believing  to  the  child;  if  it  is  the 

right  kind  of  seeing,  it  is  also  knowing.     In  geography,  the 

excursion  is  seeing,  it  is  getting  informa- 

Excursion  t^on  at  ^rst  nanc*-     Two  thoughtful  objec- 

tions are  urged  to  the  excursion, — the  diffi- 
culty in  maintaining  discipline  and  the  great  amount  of  time 
needed.  Does  not  true  discipline,  however,  take  cognizance 
of  the  real  child,  training  him  for  his  life  work?  The 
excursion  tends  to  put  the  real  child  under  the  eyes  of  the 
teacher,  an  opportunity  not  lost  by  an  observant,  sympa- 


GEOGRAPHY  233 

thetic  person.  The  time  required  for  an  excursion  is  cer- 
tainly an  important  consideration ;  but  does  not  the  trouble 
in  this  respect  usually  lie  in  thinking  of  today  only  as  time? 
If  the  knowledge  gathered  on  the  excursion  is  well  seen, 
if  it  is  so  thoroughly  learned  that  reviews  and  reproduc- 
tions are  less  necessary  than  with  the  information  gained 
from  a  book  or  through  the  teacher,  is  not  time  really  gained 
in  the  course  of  the  year? 

Aimless  wandering  is  not  a  geographical  excursion.  The 
teacher  should  know  where  the  class  is  to  go  and  why ;  the 
pupil  should  have  some  understanding  of  what  he  is  to  see 
and  why.  One  teacher,  before  taking  her  class  to  the 
woolen  mills,  made  three  trips  there  herself,  so  that  she 
might  be  familiar  enough  with  it  to  direct  attention  profit- 
ably, and  to  answer  intelligently  any  question  that  might 
be  brought  out  by  the  pupils  at  the  mill  or  in  the  class  dis- 
cussion that  followed  the  return  to  the  schoolroom.  A 
paper  written  by  a  pupil  after  this  trip  was  pronounced  by 
the  superintendent  of  the  mill  correct  in  all  respects  except 
in  the  use  of  a  few  technical  terms,  a  result  worthy  of  the 
devotion  of  the  teacher.  Not  only  must  the  eye  see  but 
the  mind  must  record  scientifically  and  correctly  what  is 
seen.  The  excursion  and  the  discussions  that  follow  offer 
excellent  opportunities  for  such  training,  which  is  just  what 
is  required  in  many  branches  of  life. 

Our  judgments  are  formed  on  certain  established  stand- 
ards or  units.  The  more  definite  the  standards,  the  more 

unerring  the  judgments.  In  geography, 
XliG  Type 

the  pupil  must  have  some  means  of  convert- 
ing the  ideas  roused  by  reading  about  distant  lands  and 
foreign  conditions  into  known  quantities.  To  do  this  he 


234  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

must  be  able  to  visualize,  to  typify.  The  local  river,  creek, 
slough,  becomes  his  type  for  the  study  of  other  water 
courses;  the  distance  from  his  home  to  some  known  place 
is  his  unit  of  measurement;  the  length  of  his  play-time  or 
his  study  period  is  his  standard  of  time ;  the  hottest  day  or 
the  coldest  morning  is  a  unit  for  climatic  comparison. 
When  the  local  types  have  been  fixed,  the  imagination  is 
brought  into  play  in  order  to  understand  distant  conditions. 
Pictures,  books,  stories,  all  aid  in  giving  that  larger  view 
by  which  the  young  mind  passes  to  new  types.  Thus,  from 
the  local  stream,  the  type  changes  to  the  Mississippi,  a 
standard  for  measuring  all  great  rivers.  In  similar  man- 
ner cities,  countries,  governments,  and  peoples  become 
known,  but  the  home  type  is  the  point  of  departure. 

FIRST  AND  SECOND  YEAR  GRADES 

The  geographical  work  of  these  years  is  incidental  and 
is  usually  associated  with  nature  study;  the  teaching  is 
objective,  and  it  should  always  be  within  the  limits  of  the 
child's  observation  and  experience.  Distance,  location, 

direction,  are  the  first  three  thoughts  pre- 
Distance  sented  tQ  the  dass>  The  dt  block  {&  the 

Direction 

Location  standard  of  measurement  with  these  begin- 

ners, who  are  led  to  notice  and  remember 
how  many  blocks  it  is  from  home  to  the  school,  to  the  car 
line,  to  some  public  building.  Cardinal  points  are  learned 
in  connection  with  objects  outside  the  schoolroom;  later, 
they  are  applied  to  the  interior  of  the  room  and  building. 
The  child  is  led  to  observe  in  what  direction  a  certain  street 
car  runs,  where  the  sun  rises  and  sets,  how  the  shadows  fall 


GEOGRAPHY  235 

at  different  times  in  the  day.  That  is,  his  attention  is  called 
to  the  directions  that  are  within  his  experiences. 

The  children  tell  what  some  of  the  people  whom  they 
know  are  doing,  thus  beginning  to  study  occupations. 
They  talk  about  the  public  buildings  of  the 
Industries  c^'  l°catmg  them  by  the  cardinal  direction 

from  certain  well  known  points,  and  men- 
tioning in  terms  intelligible  to  the  child  some  of  their  uses ; 
it  is  a  foundation  for  later  studies  in  government.  The 
ways  of  going  around  the  city  are  discussed,  in  order  to 
understand  the  needs  and  the  kinds  of  transportation.  The 
most  noted  industries  or  manufactures  of  the  city  are  men- 
tioned and  located  if  possible.  Some  of  the  most  common 
fruits  and  vegetables  are  talked  about,  the  children  finding 
out  where  they  come  from  and  if  any  are  shipped  away. 

Stories  of  children  in  other  lands  begin  the  pupil's  ac- 
quaintance with  foreign  countries,  they  are  the  first  steps 

in    the    geography    of    the    world.     This 
Stories  of 
Child  Life  knowledge  may  be  only  of  names,  correctly 

pronounced  and  spelled;  of  simple  facts 
about  countries,  as  that  Switzerland  is  a  land  of  lakes  and 
mountains,  as  shown  in  "  William  Tell " ;  or  that  Holland 
has  dykes  to  keep  out  the  sea,  as  the  islands  below  Stockton 
have  levees  to  keep  out  the  San  Joaquin  river.  Whatever 
the  facts,  if  they  are  learned  correctly  and  are  well  fixed  in 
the  memory,  they  are  supplementary  geographical  knowl- 
edge. In  the  second  grade,  the  globe  and  the  wall  maps 
are  used  freely  with  the  stories,  thus  familiarizing  the  chil- 
dren with  the  representation  of  the  world  as  a  whole,  with 
the  shapes  of  the  continents  and  oceans,  and  leading  many 
of  the  brighter  minds  to  locate  the  places  talked  about. 


236  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

The  blackboard  and  the  sand  trough  are  used  freely  in 
developing  the  work  of  these  grades  both  by  the  teacher 

and  the  pupils.  By  drawing  and  modeling 
Constructive  ,.  ,  .11*.  i  , 

Work  the  teacher  presents  thoughts  more  clearly 

and  forcibly;  by  the  same  means  the  child 
expresses  his  comprehension  of  a  subject,  and  visualizes  for 
himself  that  about  which  he  is  studying. 

THIRD  YEAR  GRADE 

With  the  mile  as  an  understood  unit  of  measurement,  in 
this  grade  many  distances  around  the  city  are  made  intel- 
ligible to  the  pupils.     Distance  is  also  meas- 
Distance  ,    .       .  .  „      ,  .       f 

Home  City  u         m  time>  a  ten  mmute   walk,  bicycle 

ride,  trip  on  the  railroad,  on  the  street  car. 
The  principal  work  of  the  grade  is  to  give  the  pupils  a 
definite  idea  of  the  size  and  plan  of  the  city,  which  is  laid 
out  as  a  rectangle,  and  of  the  location  of  the  principal  build- 
ings, especially  those  belonging  to  the  city.  The  printed 
maps  of  the  city  furnished  the  schools  are  used  by  the  chil- 
dren for  indicating  parks,  buildings,  factories,  hotels, 
schools,  depots.  In  connection  with  the  map  work,  the 
pupils  learn  direction  as  represented  in  drawing.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  details  of  the  city  within  its  boundaries,  the 
features  of  the  country  around  the  city  are  studied:  the 
great  plain  in  which  Stockton  is  located;  the  mountain 
ranges  in  the  distance ;  the  rivers  and  other  waterways ;  the 
nature  of  the  soil.  On  maps  of  the  city,  drawn  or  modeled, 
or  on  the  wall  map,  the  children  locate  the  streets,  parks, 
and  other  points  of  interest,  telling  in  what  direction  they 
would  go  if  passing  from  one  point  to  another. 

Stories  of  child  life  are  an  important  feature  in  the  read- 


GEOGRAPHY  237 

ing  for  the  year,  and  care  is  taken  that  some  of  them  shall 
be  of  a  nature  to  arouse  the  interest  of  the 

Stones  of  children  in  the  world  as  well  as  in  its  people. 

Other  Lands 

Conditions  in  many  countries  thus  begin  to 

impress  themselves  upon  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  The 
globe  and  the  wall  maps  are  used  in  these  stories,  although 
no  fixed  amount  of  knowledge  can  be  required.  If  the 
information  is  given  accurately,  if  the  locations  are  clearly 
pointed  out,  and  if  the  children  frequently  hunt  out  places 
and  countries  for  themselves,  the  results  are  almost  sure  to 
be  satisfactory  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  geographical 
information  obtained. 

FOURTH  YEAR  GRADE 

Units  of  measurement  of  distance  and  time  are  developed 
through  a  comprehension  of  one  mile,  five,  ten,  a  hundred 
miles  ;  an  hour,  a  day,  a  week,  a  month,  a 
year.     Pupils  try  to  realize  long  distances 


by  translating  them  into  the  time  occupied 
in  covering  them  by  various  modes  of  travel.  This  corre- 
lates well  with  number  work,  the  children  solving  some 
really  difficult  problems  for  their  grade  through  interest  in 
the  thought  and  a  real  understanding  of  what  they  are  try- 
ing to  do. 

From  six  to  seven  months  of  the  year  are  given  to  home 
geography.     An  elementary  text-book  is  used,  and  the  al- 

lotted time  is  ample  for  collateral  reading 
Geography  an(^  ^or  ma^m&  experiments  to  illustrate 

some  of  the  phenomena  described.  It  is 
easy  to  show  the  children  the  carrying  power  of  rivers  in 
transporting  soil;  the  way  in  which  hills  are  washed  down 


238  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

by  rain  and  other  actions  of  water;  the  effect  of  lateral 
pressure  on  the  crust  of  the  earth  is  easily  presented  by 
putting  differently  colored  soils  with  layers  of  salt  or  some 
other  white  substance  between  them  on  a  large  blotting  pad 
slightly  raised  in  the  center.  Apply  lateral  pressure  gently 
until  the  uppermost  fold  breaks. 

Several  careful  experiments  are  made  so  that  the  chil- 
dren may  understand  the  action  of  air.     This  is  very  inter- 
esting to  the  pupils  and  is  preparatory  to 
of  ^  the  study  of  climate  in  later  grades.     For 

one  of  these  experiments  a  short  section  of 
gas  pipe  is  filled  with  water,  the  caps  are  screwed  on  se- 
curely, and  the  pipe  is  placed  in  a  bucket  and  surrounded 
with  a  mixture  of  salt  and  ice.  The  children  watch  the 
formations  that  appear  on  the  outside  of  the  pipe, — dew, 
frost,  and  ice,  where  a  few  drops  of  water  have  been  placed 
on  the  outside.  After  a  while  the  pipe  bursts  by  the  ex- 
pansion of  the  water  as  it  turns  to  ice.  A  thermometer 
placed  in  the  bucket  adds  to  the  interest  in  the  experiment. 
Valleys  are  treated  in  connection  with  rivers,  several 
weeks  being  devoted  to  the  related  subjects.  Sandbars 
formed  in  a  river,  channel,  or  creek  are 
and  Rivers  good  examples  of  the  work  of  a  river. 

Several  land  and  water  forms  are  learned 
through  the  study  of  ponds  and  lakes.  These  are  distin- 
guished, named,  and  drawn  by  the  pupil,  who  is  led  to  form 
his  own  definitions.  As  new  places  are  mentioned  they 
are  looked  up  on  the  map  in  the  text-book,  then  on  the 
wall  map,  if  possible  on  the  globe  as  well.  The  habit  of 
locating  a  new  place  is  to  be  classed  with  looking  up  a  new 
word. 


GEOGRAPHY  239 

In  connection  with  the  work  on  the  home  city  industries 

and  commerce  are  studied.    The  government  is  considered 

briefly,  in  terms  comprehensible  to  the  chil- 

Commercial  dren,  correlating  it  with  civics  and  the  ordi- 

Ind    tri  nances  of  the  city  government  that  are  ap- 

Ljfe  plicable  to  the  lives  of  the  children.     Maps 

are  drawn  of  places  studied,  not  as  perfect 

reproductions  nor  as  examples  of  painstakng  efforts,  but  in 

order  to  fix  general  proportions  in  the  minds  of  the  children. 

The  topics  connected  with  the  commercial  and  industrial 
life  of  the  city  are  more  than  geography.  They  correlate 
so  closely  with  local  history  that  on  many  occasions  there 
is  no  attempt  to  differentiate  between  these  two  subjects. 
Leading  articles  of  export,  as  flour,  combined  harvesters, 
leather,  woollen  goods,  fruits,  are  made  the  bases  of  class 
talks.  During  the  year  excursions  to  some  local  industries 
are  made,  the  teacher  visiting  the  factory  first  in  order  to 
become  familiar  with  the  processes,  all  or  part  of  the  class 
going  later  with  the  teacher.  It  is  not  necessary  that  all 
fourth  grades  should  visit  the  same  industry;  the  follow- 
ing are  those  inspected  by  some  class  during  the  year :  the 
flour  mills,  glass  works,  woollen  mills,  briquette  factory, 
cannery,  harvester  works,  iron  works,  ship  yards,  planing 
mills,  macaroni  factory. 

The  order  of  the  study  is  to  procure  any  samples  possible 
and  usable  in  the  schoolroom,  to  locate  the  works,  study 
the  raw  material,  observe  the  process  of  manufacture,  study 
the  product  and  its  uses,  review  the  excursion  by  means 
of  photographs,  write  it  up. 

The  county  is  studied,  beginning  with  near-by  districts 
and  any  portions  of  the  county  known  to  any  of  the  pupils. 


24O  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

The  topics  taken  up  are, — surface  and  drainage,  position 
and  boundaries,  industries,  products,  roads,  lines  of  trans- 
portation, rivers,  towns.     A  study  is  made 

County  °^  t^ie  wa^  maP  °^  t^ie  countv>  furnished 

every  fourth  grade.  The  county  is  drawn 
again  and  again  until  the  children  can  reproduce  it  easily 
and  accurately  from  memory.  After  the  outline  is  firmly 
fixed  in  the  mind,  the  principal  towns  are  located  and  their 
leading  industries  are  discussed.  It  is  shown  that  Stockton 
is  a  distributing  center,  and  that  its  intercourse  is  great 
with  all  parts  of  the  county. 

As  a  preparation  for  talks  on  the  products  of  the  county, 
the  various  kinds  of  soil  are  discussed,  not  in  scientific  lec- 
tures, but  in  the  curiosity-satisfying,  obser- 
Soil 

vation-loving  methods,  delightful  and  in- 
spiring to  the  minds  of  children.  The  peat  land  of  the 
islands,  the  adobe  in  and  around  Stockton,  the  alluvial  bot- 
tom lands  of  the  rivers,  are  treated  briefly.  A  map  on  the 
board,  locating  these  lands  in  colors,  makes  the  work  very 
graphic.  Products  grown  upon  the  different  soils  are  dis- 
cussed; the  teacher  talks  of  the  irrigation  and  reclamation 
near  the  city.  On  all  these  points  the  children  are  either 
already  informed  or  they  hunt  up  a  great  many  interesting 
points  to  contribute  to  the  class. 

The  children  make  a  long  list  of  local  products, — fruits, 
vegetables,  grains,  animals,  dairy  products.     In  these  stud- 
ies it  is  usual  to  procure  such  specimens  as 
Products  ^  seems  desirous  to  have  in  the  school- 

room; to  find  out  in  what  part  of  the 
county  each  is  grown ;  to  study  a  little  about  the  life  of  the 
specimen  on  its  home  ranch;  to  collect  samples  indicating 


GEOGRAPHY  24! 

the  nature  of  the  growth,  or  to  make  illustrative  drawings 
for  the  same  purpose ;  to  study  the  manner  of  handling  the 
product,  including  the  mode  of  gathering,  packing,  and  the 
means  of  transportation;  to  follow  the  product  to  its  point 
of  sale,  speaking  briefly  of  the  city  merchant  and  his  store. 
Written  work,  incorporating  the  results  of  these  investiga- 
tions, completes  the  study  of  any  one  product. 

The  dependence  of  occupations  and  industries  upon  one 
another  and  upon  productions  is  easily  shown;  it  forms  an 
interesting  feature  of  this  part  of  the  study,  and  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  geography,  history,  and  civics.  The  in- 
dustries growing  out  of  any  production  are  called  to  the 
attention  of  the  children  by  such  questions  as  the  following 
about  wheat  raising:  Why  are  there  several  flouring  mills 
here  ?  How  is  the  wheat  taken  from  the  ranch  to  the  mill  ? 
Where  is  the  flour  shipped  to?  By  what  means  of  trans- 
portation? In  the  shipments  to  China  is  there  any  reload- 
ing of  the  flour  after  leaving  Stockton?  How  many  occu- 
pations can  be  named  that  grow  out  of  wheat  raising  in 
San  Joaquin  county? 

Stories  of  children  in  other  lands  are  continued  in  this 
year,  forming  one  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  the 

course.     There  are  always  discussions  on 
Children  the  home  of  the  child  about  whom  the  story 

of  other 
Lands  is  written;  where  it  is  located;  what  kind 

of  a  country  this  is ;  how  it  differs  from 
our  own ;  personal  appearance  of  the  people ;  clothing ;  food ; 
animals,  and  the  uses  to  which  they  are  put;  occupations. 
There  is  an  immense  fund  of  delightful  information  to  be 
gained  in  this  way,  over  which  children  never  tire.  Map 
and  globe  researches  are  its  constant  accompaniment,  favor- 
17 


242  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

ing  the  acquisition  of  a  great  deal  of  accurate  geographical 
knowledge.  Much  assistance  is  given  by  locating  on  the 
globe  the  world  belt  in  which  our  home  is  found ;  this  may 
be  transferred  to  the  wall  map  most  frequently  in  use,  thus 
furnishing  the  pupils  with  a  quick  and  sure  means  of  locat- 
ing places  north  and  south  of  the  home  zone,  and  establish- 
ing a  means  of  comparison  with  places  that  are  not  in  the 
same  latitude.  Pictures  are  used  freely,  and  all  illustrative 
material,  such  as  articles  of  dress,  utensils,  products,  all  of 
which  help  to  picture  life  in  foreign  countries. 

Maps  are  drawn  of  the  home  city  and  county.  The  land 
and  water  forms  are  studied;  sometimes  illustrated  by  the 

puddles   in  the   school   yard   after   a   rain 
Representation 

storm,  sometimes  seen  in  objective  form  by 

trips  to  the  harbor  and  river.  Plans  are  drawn  to  scale, 
showing  a  surface  as  a  bird  would  see  it  from  above.  Ideas 
of  area  and  scale  are  developed.  This  work  is  closely  con- 
nected with  arithmetic  and  drawing. 

The  following  extracts  are  from  a  teacher's  account  of 
her  work:1 

One  of  the  first  duties  of  the  teacher  is  to  lead  the  child 
to  observe  everything  in  nature  around  him, — the  air,  the 
water,  the  sky,  the  temperature,  the  clouds ; 
animals,  planets,  rocks,  hills,  valleys,  soil, 
streams,  the  habitations  and  the  occupations  of  men.  He 
should  also  learn  the  necessary  terms  with  which  to  express 
the  ideas  gained  by  his  observations.  This  is  important 
preparatory  work  in  geography,  from  which,  in  addition  to 
knowledge,  the  child  gains  the  power  of  accurate  observa- 
tion, inference,  and  expression;  also  the  ability  to  make 

1Miss  Maud  Soutfiworth. 


GEOGRAPHY  243 

clear  his  thoughts  by  drawing,  modeling,  painting,  and  con- 
structing. 

The  work  of  the  year  includes  oral  lessons  on  distance, 
location,  and  direction.  The  use  of  the  compass  is  investi- 
gated. The  North  Star  is  located.  A 
The  Year  weather  record  is  kept  during  the  winter 

months  when  the  weather  is  changeable.  A 
plan  is  drawn  of  the  schoolroom,  the  school  block,  the  home 
block.  A  map  of  the  city  is  then  drawn. 

A  topic,  as  rivers,  is  placed  on  the  board,  with  such  ques- 
tions as  the  following: — What  is  a  river?  Name  one  near 

Stockton.     Where    is    its    source?     Many 
Topical 
Treatment  other  simple  questions  are  asked  to  lead  the 

children  to  consider  a  river  from  its  source 
to  its  mouth,  some  of  the  work  it  performs  in  carrying  soil 
and  other  ways,  and  the  change  in  the  country  through  which 
it  flows  from  the  hills  or  mountains  to  the  sea.  Many  of 
these  questions  must  be  subdivided  into  new  topics.  Some 
pupils  have  seen  the  source  of  a  river  in  the  mountains; 
others  have  seen  the  mouth  of  the  San  Joaquin  or  the 
Sacramento  river ;  all  know  about  the  overflow  lands.  So  all 
the  thoughts  suggested  by  the  above  questions  can  be  de- 
veloped intelligently  and  concretely  with  the  whole  class. 
After  the  oral  work  is  completed  the  children  write  up  a 
story  on  the  subject.  Other  topics,  as  mountains,  valleys, 
lakes,  soil,  air,  moisture,  are  treated  in  a  similar  manner. 

After  drawing  a  plan  of  our  city  Stockton  is  taken  up 
according  to  the  same  method.  Such  topical  questions  are 

given  as : — How  is  Stockton  governed  ? 
Home  City 

Who  makes  the  laws  ?  Who  are  the  princi- 
pal city  officials?  What  are  the  railroads,  the  street  car 


244  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

lines  ?  What  are  the  leading  industries  ?  Is  the  land  in  and 
around  Stockton  level  or  hilly?  What  are  the  nearest 
mountains?  the  rivers?  After  the  children  are  thoroughly 
familiar  with  the  topics  by  means  of  the  oral  treatment,  out- 
lines are  made,  and  many  are  written  up.  In  all  our 
geography  work  as  many  pictures  as  can  be  found  and  used 
profitably  are  brought  in  by  the  children  or  are  provided  by 
the  teacher. 

During  the  past  year,  while  studying  about  the  local  indus- 
tries, the  class  visited  one  of  the  creameries.     The  day  before 

the  visit  we  talked  of  the  things  that  we 
The 
Creamery  expected  to  see ;  of  the  number  of  creameries 

in  Stockton;  where  they  were  located;  how 
they  got  their  milk  and  cream.  We  spoke  of  the  skimming 
stations,  and  agreed  to  find  out  how  many  there  are  in  the 
county  and  of  what  use  they  are  to  the  farmers ;  also  to  find 
out  about  the  means  of  transporting  milk  and  cream.  The 
following  outline  was  then  worked  out  with  the  class  as  a 
guide  for  the  excursion  and  later  for  the  paper  on  the  sub- 
ject. 

Creameries. 
Number. 
Location. 
Skimming  stations. 

Location. 

Handling  the  milk — weighing. 
— straining. 
— separating. 
Churning  the  cream. 


GEOGRAPHY  245 

Handling  the  butter — working. 
— moulding. 
— packing  for  sale. 
— shipping. 

Centers  for  sale  of  butter. 
Near  home. 
Shipping  by  rail  or  water. 

The  children  copied  this  outline  and  carried  it  with  them 
the  next  day.  They  were  told  to  ask  questions  and  to  find 
out  all  that  they  could  about  everything  that  they  saw.  After 
careful  inspection  of  the  creamery,  we  returned  to  school 
and  talked  over  what  we  had  seen  and  heard.  Paper  was 
then  passed  to  the  pupils,  and,  from  their  outlines,  they 
wrote  an  account  of  the  excursion.  For  drawing  that  day 
an  outline  was  made  of  Stockton,  locating  in  reference  to  the 
city  the  principal  dairy  farms  of  the  county  as  we  had 
learned  about  them  that  morning  at  the  creamery. 

The  class  took  up  the  flour  mills  of  Stockton  in  the  same 
way,  but  only  two  of  the  pupils  visited  them.  These  two  re- 
ported to  the  class  the  day  after  their  trip,  outlines  were  then 
made,  and  the  stories  were  written.  Other  local  industries 
are  taken  up  in  one  or  the  other  of  these  ways,  but  not  all  are 
reproduced  in  writing. 

The  study  of  the  state  follows  that  of  the  city  and  county. 
In  history  California  is  studied  with  reference  to  the  Indians, 
the  mission  fathers,  the  discovery  of  gold, 

Home  State          an(^  t^ie  ^mission  mto  tne  Union  as  a  state. 
In  this  work  the  children  draw  maps  show- 
ing California  as  it  looked  when  the  Indians  were  here;  as 
the  mission  fathers  knew  it,  locating  the  twenty-one  mis- 


246  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

sions ;  and  as  it  is  represented  on  the  maps  today.  The  chil- 
dren find  interesting  work  in  the  discovery  of  gold  and  the 
different  ways  of  mining  still  practiced  in  the  state,  especially 
in  the  Mother  Lode  region  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountains. 

Twenty  minutes  a  day  are  given  to  geography.  The  work 
is  mainly  oral  with,  perhaps,  two  written  lessons  a  month. 

The  following  paper  was  written  by  one  of  Miss  South- 
worth's  pupils  after  the  excursion  to  the  creamery.  There 
are  no  corrections  in  any  manner  whatever. 

"  We  went  three  blocks  and  a  half  to  the  creamery. 

"  The  creamery  is  on  the  corner  of  Center  Street  and 
Miner  Avenue. 

"  The  owners  of  the  creamery  are  Mr.  Cy.  Moreing,  Mr. 
W.  A.  Hildreth,  and  the  estate  of  Mr.  W.  F.  Jordan. 

"  It  is  leased  by  Mr.  F.  H.  Armsburger,  its  manager. 

"  When  the  milk  comes  from  the  farms  they  put  it  in  large 
cans.  Then  they  put  them  in  country  wagons  and  send  the 
milk  to  the  skimming  stations  which  are  scattered  all  over 
the  country.  There  is  one  in  Elks  Grove,  in  Sacramento 
County,  has  twenty  patrons ;  another  in  Lodi,  in  our  country 
which  is  San  Joaquin  County,  has  twenty  patrons;  another 
in  Bellota,  in  San  Joaquin  County,  has  twenty  patrons  and 
two  private  skimming  stations;  another  at  Holt,  in  San 
Joaquin  County,  is  private;  another  in  Lathrop,  in  San 
Joaquin  County,  is  owned  by  patrons;  and  another  in 
Modesto,  in  Stanislaus  County,  is  owned  by  patrons. 

"  They  have  a  machine  called  a  separator  in  the  skimming 
stations.  It  has  two  pipes,  one  for  the  cream  and  the  other 
for  the  milk  to  run  out.  The  milk  is  the  heaviest  so  it  stays 
at  the  bottom  and  the  cream  goes  to  the  top. 

"  They  have  a  kind  of  tube  they  put  a  little  of  the  milk  in 


GEOGRAPHY  247 

and  some  liquid  with  it  to  tell  how  much  the  milk  is  worth. 

"  The  purpose  of  this  is  to  give  the  men  the  money  that 
they  ought  to  get.  The  men  that  have  poor  milk  don't  get 
much  as  the  men  that  have  rich  milk. 

"  They  take  the  skimmed  milk  off  and  give  it  to  the  calves. 
When  the  calves  have  too  much  the  men  give  it  to  the  pigs. 

"  They  put  the  cream  on  trains  and  send  it  to  Stockton. 
When  it  arrives  the  wholesale  milk  wagon  comes  and  gets  it 
and  takes  it  to  the  creamery.  The  cream  is  carried  about 
forty  miles  to  Stockton. 

"  The  churn  is  wooden  outside  and  tin  inside.  It  is  shaped 
like  a  cylinder.  When  the  dasher  is  running  the  rollers 
aren't,  and  when  the  rollers  are  running  the  dasher  isn't.  It 
is  large  enough  to  hold  fifteen  hundred  pounds  of  butter  at 
once.  It  runs  by  steam  power.  It  takes  one  and  a  half 
hours  to  make  the  butter.  They  have  a  man  from  the 
country  come  and  get  the  buttermilk  for  his  pigs. 

"  They  wash  and  wash  the  butter  in  the  churn.  They  put 
water  in  the  churn  and  run  it  through  the  butter.  After  the 
butter  is  washed  they  let  the  water  out.  The  rollers  keep 
turning  the  salt  into  the  butter  while  they  go  around.  Then 
they  take  it  out  of  the  churn  and  put  it  in  a  kind  of  trough. 
They  have  four  wires  on  and  they  push  a  stick  fastened  to 
the  wires  and  cut  the  butter  in  cube  shape.  There  are  two 
pounds  in  each  package.  Then  they  take  it  out  of  the  trough 
with  a  kind  of  paddle.  After  it  is  hard  they  wrap  it  up  in 
paper  which  has  their  name  on,  'The  San  Joaquin  Cream- 
ery/ They  sell  the  butter  to  the  grocers  and  dealers. 
When  they  send  it  to  them  they  put  it  in  boxes.  They  sell  it 
to  the  skimming  stations  patrons,  too.  When  the  man  at 


248  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

the  creamery  pays  the  patrons  he  takes  so  much  off  for  his 
work." 

FIFTH  YEAR  GRADE 

The  two  principal  topics  for  this  year  are  the  earth  as  a 
whole  and  Stockton  and  San  Joaquin  county.     The  earth  as 

a  whole  means  that  world  units  begin  to  take 
Course  • 

the  place  of  local  units.  History  helps  de- 
velop an  idea  of  the  size  of  the  world  and  of  the  location  of 
other  lands  than  our  own.  No  detailed  work  is  done,  the 
desire  being  to  grasp  the  larger  ideas  of  the  world  first.  The 
topic  includes  elementary  geography  and  many  studies  on 
food  products,  especially  those  that  find  their  way  to  our  own 
tables  near  and  far.  The  home  geography  of  the  year  is 

confined  to  two  or  three  weeks.  Mathe- 
The  Earth 

matical  and  physical  phases  of  geography, 

in  forms  that  are  intelligible  to  the  children,  are  given  at  the 
beginning  of  the  year.  Every  device  imaginable  to  the 
teacher  is  used  to  give  the  pupils  a  clear  concept  of  the  form, 
size,  daily  motion,  and  zone  division  of  the  earth. 

The  various  geographical  sections  of  the  United  States 
are  studied  from  an  elementary  text  book,  comparing  con- 
stantly with  our  own  section.     Each  division 
United  States        .       . y 

is  given  a  few  days  or  a  week  or  two  as 

needed.  The  geographical  study  is  followed  by  an  examina- 
tion of  products,  interest  being  sustained  by  outside  reading 
and  by  comparisons  with  the  products  of  the  home  county 
and  state.  For  instance,  how  have  the  supplies  of  coal,  iron, 
and  oil  benefited  the  New  England  states?  Have  we  in 
Stockton  been  benefited  by  the  opening  of  the  Tesla  coal 
mines  ?  The  price  of  coal  in  the  East  is  compared  with  the 


GEOGRAPHY  249 

price  here.  The  child  is  led  to  see  that  there  are  reasons  for 
cities  being  located  in  certain  places,  and  for  their  growth. 
In  discussing  the  Erie  Canal,  the  conversation  is  turned  upon 
the  fact  that  Stockton  owes  its  location  and  growth  to  its 
waterways. 

Agricultural  conditions  in  the  Southern  states  are  dis- 
cussed, and  two  of  their  staples,  cotton  and  tobacco,  are 
grown  in  window  gardens  and  yards.  The  Central  states 
are  taken  up  in  the  same  way.  Great  cities,  as  Boston,  New 
York,  Chicago,  New  Orleans,  are  studied  and  imaginary 
visits  are  made  to  them.  A  week  may  be  taken  looking  up 
information,  about  any  one  of  the  above  named  cities  by  some 
individual  pupil  or  by  the  whole  class.  Then  a  letter  is 
written,  purporting  to  be  from  the  city  studied,  describing 
conditions,  and  perhaps  bringing  in  notable  buildings  and 
other  objects  of  interest.  It  is  often  an  incentive  for  the 
class  if  the  teacher  writes  the  first  letter ;  interest  is  awakened 
and  a  model  is  given  to  the  pupils.  Such  a  letter  may  be 
read  without  giving  the  name  of  the  place,  the  class  deciding 
what  section  is  described.  In  the  Western  States  three  ideas 
stand  out  prominently,  the  mountains  and  their  mineral 
wealth,  the  Great  Basin,  and  the  fruitful  regions  on  the 
Pacific  slope.  There  are  so  many  points  of  comparison,  so 
many  interesting  features  of  knowledge  in  all  this  work  that 
the  pupils  rarely  tire  of  it.  It  can  be  so  conducted  that  it  is 
almost  a  record  of  travel  to  them.  It  should  be.  Geography 
is  wonderfully  interesting,  but  many  people  have  to  travel 
before  they  find  it  out;  the  children  should  learn  it  in  the 
schoolroom. 

The  work  on  South  America  is  brief  and  should  not  be 
intensive.  Aside  from  Brazil,  which  receives  individual 


25O  METHODS   IN   TEACHIN.G 

treatment,  it  is  taken  up  in  sections.  In  studying  Europe,  a 
comparison  of  conditions  and  productions,  already  a  little 
known  to  the  pupils  through  the  stories  of 
South  America  children  of  other  land  is  the  method  of 
Europe 

Asia,  Africa  approach.  The  dykes  of  Holland  are  com- 
pared with  the  levees  along  the  San  Joaquin 
river;  the  mountains  of  Switzerland  with  the  mountains  of 
California;  the  coal  and  iron  of  England  with  that  of  the 
Middle  Atlantic  states.  Where  comparisons  are  not  easily 
drawn,  the  stories  of  other  lands  may  be  taken  as  points  of 
departure  or  as  centers  of  interest.  In  studying  Asia,  China 
and  Japan  are  the  two  countries  to  be  emphasized,  especially 
for  the  growing  commercial  relations  between  them  and  the 
United  States.  The  attention  of  the  pupils  is  called  to  the 
marked  contrast  between  the  two  countries.  Africa  is 
studied  very  briefly,  for  this  continent  touches  but  lightly 
the  interests  and  knowledge  of  the  children  of  this  age. 

The  home  geography  for  the  year  is  an  extension  of  that 
for  the  preceding  grade.     The  city  is  studied  with  reference 
to   its   location   and    advantages.     Why   is 
Geography  Stockton  a  commercial  city?     Of  what  ad- 

vantage is  transportation  of  freight  by 
water?  What  railroads  pass  through  the  city?  What  ones 
terminate  here?  In  what  way  do  they  benefit  Stockton? 
The  manufactures  are  reviewed ;  the  sources,  uses,  advan- 
tages of  the  various  kinds  of  power  available  for  manufactur- 
ing purposes  here  are  talked  over,  always  remembering  the 
limitations  of  a  child's  interest  and  comprehension.  The 
lighting  of  the  city  is  discussed,  as  are  also  the  drainage  sys- 
tem and  the  means  of  disposing  of  the  sewage.  Stockton 


GEOGRAPHY  25! 

in  relation  to  the  county,  to  the  great  central  valley,  to  the 
state,  are  subjects  for  thought  and  discussion. 

In  this  and  succeeding  grades  the  natural  interdependence 
of  geography  with  other  subjects,  especially  history,  must  be 

borne  in  mind  constantly  by  the  teacher, 
of  Work  Pupils  should  be  trained  to  consult  the  globe. 

atlas,  wall  maps,  gazetteer,  encyclopaedia, 
when  any  unfamiliar  geographical  reference  is  met  with  in 
any  work.  They  should  be  trained  thoroughly  in  the  use  of 
all  labor  saving  aids,  as  the  table  of  contents,  the  index,  the 
key  to  pronunciation.  Frequent  short  exercises  in  map 
drawing  should  be  given,  beginning  with  copying  either  a 
state  or  a  section  of  the  United  States,  and  repeating  the 
map  until  a  recognition  of  proportion  and  a  facility  in  execu- 
tion have  been  gained.  This  drawing  is  for  general  charac- 
teristics of  a  country,  not  for  detail,  and  memory  maps  be- 
come a  feature  of  the  exercise.  Blackboard  work  permits 
of  freedom  of  movement  by  the  pupil  and  ease  of  inspection 
by  the  teacher.  Only  such  places  are  located  as  have  some 
connection  with  the  child's  work,  no  matter  what  may  be 
given  on  the  printed  map.  Sections  of  the  country  are 
drawn  rather  than  individual  states,  although  for  variety  a 
section  is  sometimes  built  up  by  drawing  the  individual  states. 

SIXTH   YEAR  GRADE 

The  work  for  the  year  centers  on  North  America,  under 
the  following  topics : — California,  the  home  state ;  a  general 

study  of  North  America;  more  detailed 
America  study  of  the  United  States,  the  principal 

topic  for  the  year;  somewhat  detailed  study 
on  the  remaining  countries  of  North  America.  The  leading 


252  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

thought  of  the  grade  is  to  give  the  pupil  an  appreciation  of 
his  own  country.  His  own  state,  which  is  his  unit  of  com- 
parison, should  now  be  well  known  geographically,  industri- 
ally, and  commercially;  and  a  map  of  the  state  should  be 
drawn  readily  from  memory,  with  the  principal  rivers, 
mountain  ranges,  and  cities  located  correctly. 

As  the  development  of  certain  industries  in  some  localities 
and  not  in  others  depends  upon  physiographic  and  climatic 
conditions,  the  pupils  should  have  a  clear  understanding  of 
the  broad  principles  that  underlie  existing  conditions  in  any 
section  of  the  country  that  is  being  studied.  Whenever  a 
new  section  of  the  United  States  is  taken  up  it  is  well  to  re- 
call the  general  laws  and  see  how  the  particular  section 
under  discussion  is  affected  by  them.  The  simpler  treat- 
ment of  these  subjects  in  earlier  years  is  the  basis  for  the 
work  in  every  grade.  The  habits  and  habitats  of  animals 
and  plants  found  in  different  sections  provide  material  for 
short  talks  and  papers. 

The  general  geographical  divisions  for  the  study  of  the 
United  States  are,  as  in  the  fifth  grade,  the  different  sections 

of  the  country,  but  the  work  is  more  inten- 
United  .  c  ,  A.  .  .  .  ,  . 

States  Slve'     Some  of  the  principal  topics  are: — 

New  England,  its  forests,  building  stone, 
fishing,  manufacturing,  and  early  historical  importance; 
Middle  Atlantic  states,  agriculture,  mining,  manufacture  of 
articles  from  mineral  products,  growth  of  New  York  city; 
Southern  States,  industrial  awakening  since  the  war,  mining, 
manufacturing,  growth  and  nature  of  New  Orleans,  includ- 
ing its  sanitary  problems,  its  cosmopolitan  population,  its 
streets ;  the  great  region  of  the  Central  states,  the  store  house 
of  so  much  of  the  nation's  wealth,  both  materially  and  in 


GEOGRAPHY  253 

the  physical  and  intellectual  power  that  have  been  influential 
in  the  progress  of  this  country.  The  important  points  of 
study  concerning  the  Central  states  are  settlement,  agricul- 
ture, mineral  products,  the  lake  cities,  the  river  cities,  Chi- 
cago. The  great  variance  in  physiography  and  climatic  con- 
ditions in  the  different  sections  of  the  Western  states  requires 
that  they  be  treated  separately.  The  Great  Basin  of  Utah 
and  Nevada  is  different  in  every  way  from  the  productive 
Pacific  slope.  The  points  to  be  emphasized  are  physiography 
and  climate,  agriculture,  irrigation,  mining,  scenery,  and  San 
Francisco,  a  typical  Pacific  coast  city.  A  short  time  is  spent 
on  the  territories  and  dependencies  of  the  United  States, — 
Alaska,  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  Hawaiian  Islands,  Philippines. 

The  study  of  British  American  possessions  gives  oppor- 
tunity for  reviewing  adjoining  sections  of  the  United  States 

because  of  the  similarity  in  conditions,  in- 
Countries  dustries  and  products  along  the  boundaries. 

The  points  to  be  established  are  differences 
in  people  and  government,  lumbering,  fishing,  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  Northwest,  transference  of  people,  immigra- 
tion of  farmers  from  the  United  States  into  the  Northwest, 
and  settlements  of  Canadians  in  our  own  country.  Mexico 
is  the  basis  of  the  study  of  the  countries  to  the  south,  and  for 
a  comparison  with  our  own  social,  physical,  and  industrial 
conditions.  The  intermixing  of  races  has  brought  about  a 
social  and  an  industrial  deterioration.  The  laboring  classes 
among  the  present  inhabitants  are  ordinarily  ignorant  and 
indolent,  adhering  to  the  crude  methods  of  life  practiced  by 
their  ancestors.  The  great  mineral  wealth  and  the  rich  agri- 
cultural opportunities  have  caused  an  influx  of  Americans 
into  Mexico  and  Central  America,  attracted  by  the  chances 


254  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

for  accumulating  wealth.  In  Central  America  the  instability 
of  the  government  and  the  growing  of  coffee  are  the  princi- 
pal topics  considered. 

Many  maps  are  drawn  throughout  the  year.  Progressive 
map  drawing  is  valuable  in  fixing  outlines  and  in  giving  an 

idea  of  a  pupil's  grasp  on  a  subject.     The 
Map  Drawing  .  ,      .  . ' 

following  order  is  suggested : — outline  map ; 

physical  map;  rainfall  map;  isothermal  map;  produce, 
mining,  or  manufacturing  map,  according  to  the  industrial 
nature  of  the  section;  political  map,  which  may  be  colored. 
The  following  paper  was  written  by  a  sixth  grade  boy  in 
connection  with  the  geographical  study  of  industries.  No 
alterations  whatever  have  been  made  in  it. 

THE    RECLAIMED    LANDS 

A  delta  is  a  triangular  alluvial  deposit  formed  at  the  mouth 
of  certain  rivers. 

The  most  interesting  land  of  San  Joaquin  county  is  the 
tule  land  which  extends  from  Stockton  north  to  New  Hope 
south  to  Tracy  and  Banta  and  west  to  the  boundary  of  the 
county.  This  tule  land  covers  as  much  as  two  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  acres.  It  was  formed  by  the  constant  rushing 
of  the  water  from  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  carrying 
the  decayed  vegetation  and  depositing  it  forming  the  San 
Joaquin  delta. 

This  rich  land  is  intersected  by  many  navagable  rivers 
which  are  the  San  Joaquin,  Old,  Middle,  North  Fork,  South 
Fork,  Calaveras,  and  Mokelumne  Rivers.  These  rivers 
running  along  form  many  Islands  which  are  Roberts,  Union, 
Bouldin,  and  Rough  and  Ready  islands.  These  islands  were 
once  covered  with  water  furnishing  irrigation  for  a  small 


GEOGRAPHY  255 

reed  or  tule  which  is  about  as  large  as  your  finger  and  grows 
to  the  height  of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet. 

The  sediment  or  alluvium  which  was  brought  down  by  the 
rivers  settled  to  the  roots  of  these  tules  forming  a  very  im- 
portant peat  land. 

As  this  soil  in  the  tule  lands  is  peat  it  is  the  richest  and 
most  productive  soil  in  the  world.  When  this  peat  land  is 
reclaimed  a  dredger  is  taken  to  throw  levees  up  around  the 
different  claims  leaving  the  water  inside  these  levees.  After 
the  levees  are  thrown  up  men  set  fire  to  the  tules  and  burn 
them.  If  they  pumped  the  water  off  this  land  before  burn- 
ing the  tules  this  peat  or  tule  roots  would  catch  fire  burning 
a  great  deal  of  land. 

When  the  tules  are  burned  pumps  are  used  to  pump  the 
water  from  in  these  levees.  Then  a  ditcher  is  brought  down 
which  cuts  a  straight  irrigation  ditch  through  the  different 
claims.  After  this  work  is  through  with  the  cultivating 
begins.  The  men  plough  this  rich  soil  then  they  plant  sui- 
table vegetables  to  the  soil.  Some  of  these  vegetables  are 
onions,  potatoes,  beans,  asparagus,  and  grains.  When  one 
crop  is  raised  of  one  product  there  is  a  different  product 
planted  so  as  not  to  tire  the  soil. 

SEVENTH  YEAR  GRADE 

The  work  of  the  seventh  year  includes   the  following 
topics: — about  nine  weeks  on  physical  and  general  geog- 
raphy; four  or  five  weeks  on  South  Amer- 
Course   of  r  .   -  ,          ^  . 

study  ica ;  from  eight  to  ten  weeks  on  Europe ;  five 

or  six  weeks  on  Asia ;  two  to  four  weeks  on 
Africa;  three  to  four  weeks  on  Australia  and  the  Pacific 
islands. 


256  METHODS   IN    TEACHING 

To  give  pupils  a  knowledge  of  geography  sufficient  for 
the  needs  of  a  lifetime  is  manifestly  impossible  and  is  not 
attempted.  The  work  in  the  seventh  grade  practically  com- 
pletes the  subject  as  presented  in  the  grades.  The  aims 
should  be  to  develop  interest  in  this  science,  which  in  its 
entirety  includes  all  natural  sciences;  to  give  the  pupils  a 
definite  plan  or  method  for  the  acquisition  of  geographical 
knowledge  and  for  systematizing  that  which  has  already 
been  gained;  to  lay  foundations  for  future  knowledge  and 
studies  by  investigating  some  of  the  causes  for  present  con- 
ditions of  the  earth  and  among  its  inhabitants. 

The  teacher  must  be  satisfied  to  impress  upon  the  mind  of 
the  pupil  the  larger  facts  which  are  strongly  characteristic 
of  countries  and  peoples.  The  attempt  to  hold  pupils  re- 
sponsible for  details  of  minor  importance  often  renders  first 
causes  obscure  and  colorless.  For  example :  England  mines, 
manufactures,  and  engages  in  commerce.  Why?  She 
mines  because  her  territory  contains  coal,  iron,  and  other 
valuable  minerals  that  are  always  in  demand.  She  manu- 
factures because  the  intelligence  and  inventive  genius  of  her 
people  enable  her  to  put  her  cheap  fuel  and  valuable  mineral 
resources  to  the  best  possible  use.  She  engages  in  commerce 
because  she  must  import  food  supplies  and  raw  materials  as 
well  as  find  markets  for  her  manufactures.  Such  facts  are 
elementary  in  their  relation  to  English  life  and  to  much  of 
her  government  policy;  they  should  stand  out  even  in  the 
mind  of  the  grammar  grade  pupil.  Details  are  added  for 
interest  and  clearer  understanding,  but  they  should  never  be 
allowed  to  befog  that  which  is  essential. 

By  the  time  children  have  reached  the  seventh  grade  they 
can  hold  some  clear  ideas  on  the  relation  of  the  sun  to  the 


GEOGRAPHY 


earth  and  to  the  other  planets.  They  should  distinguish 
such  terms  as  sun,  planet,  star,  satellite,  and  be  able  to 
demonstrate  by  diagram  and  globes  the  motions  of  the  earth 
which  give  us  day  and  night,  and  the  seasons.  They 
should  also  understand  the  interrelations  of  the  earth,  the 
moon,  and  the  sun,  which  give  the  phases  of  the  moon. 

Comparison  of  the  sun,  moon,  earth,  and  other  planets 
is  always  interesting  to  pupils  if  given  in  a  manner  that  is 
readily  understood.  Many  questions  will  suggest  them- 
selves to  teachers  for  arousing  interest  and  developing  defi- 
nite concepts,  as  :  If  the  earth  is  represented  by  a  globe  three 
feet  in  diameter,  what  will  be  the  diameter  of  a  proportional 
globe  to  represent  the  sun?  the  moon?  Jupiter?  If  the 
globe  representing  the  earth  were  placed  in  a  certain  posi- 
tion, how  far  away  would  the  other  globes  have  to  be 
placed  to  maintain  proportions  as  to  distance?  If  the  earth 
were  represented  by  a  globe  two  blocks  in  diameter,  how 
high  would  Mount  Shasta  appear  on  its  surface?  How 
high  above  the  surface  would  clouds  float  if  proportional 
distances  were  maintained? 

The  views  of  modern  scientists  regarding  the  condition  of 
the  interior  of  the  earth  can  be  noted  and  discussed,  and  the 
principal  physical  changes  that  are  constantly  in  progress 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth  should  be  considered  as  fully  as 
time  will  permit. 

Pupils  of  this  age  are  able  to  comprehend  many  of  the 
factors  which  make  up  climate  and  to  determine  the  distri- 
bution of  animal  and  vegetable  life.  Thermal  zones,  winds, 
ocean  currents,  and  the  causes  and  distribution  of  rainfall 
all  prove  profitable  subjects  in  this  grade. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  races,  some  attention  is 
18 


258  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

given  to  the  development  of  industries,  religions,  and 
governments,  all  of  which  indicate  the  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion attained. 

The  following  thoughts  are  selected  from  a  teacher's 
method  sheet1 : 

Before  treating  the  methods  employed  in  the  seventh 
grade  it  is  advisable  to  reconsider  the  knowledge  already 
possessed  by  the  child.  In  the  fifth  year  the  pupil  becomes 
acquainted  with  the  simpler  physiographic  forces,  such  as 
air,  water,  heat  within  the  earth.  He  learns  the  result  of 
the  rotation  of  the  earth  and  becomes  familiar  with  the  loca- 
tion of  the  zones.  He  learns  in  a  large  way  about  his 
country,  the  continent  as  a  whole,  the  United  States,  the 
countries  to  the  north  and  to  the  south.  A  similar  view  but 
with  less  of  detail  is  given  of  the  other  countries  of  the 
world.  In  the  sixth  year  there  is  a  deeper  insight  into  the 
physiographic  forces.  The  continent  of  North  America, 
especially  the  United  States,  receive  more  intensive  treat- 
ment. On  this  foundation  is  built  the  work  of  the  seventh 
grade. 

The  methods  employed  are  treated  under  the  following 
heads : — physical  forces,  physiography,  industrial  conditions, 
social  conditions,  maps  and  map  drawing. 

By  the  use  of  a  globe  and  a  baseball  the  revolution  of 
the  earth  is  shown.  The  earth's  rotation  and  the  phe- 
nomena of  day  and  night  are  explained  by 
Forces*1  shutting  out  the  daylight  and  using  a  candle 

and  the  globe.  A  series  of  experiments  is 
conducted  to  show  the  circulation  of  air  and  water  in  an 

*Mr.  S.  H.  Cohn,  principal  of  a  grammar  school  and  teacher  of 
the  seventh  grade. 


GEOGRAPHY  2  $9 

endeavor  to  simplify  air  and  water  currents.  Diagrams  and 
maps  are  drawn  to  emphasize  and  clarify  the  understanding 
of  these  points  in  reference  to  the  world.  Whenever  a  new 
section  is  studied  the  influence  of  the  various  air  and  water 
currents  upon  it  are  discussed. 

The  physiographic  and  climatic  conditions  are  the  basis 
for  the  study  of  productions,  which  in  their  turn  give  the 

key   to   the   industrial    conditions    in    any 
Industrial  . 

Conditions  country.     For  example:— the  physiography 

of  the  Andean  section  of  South  America 
suggests  mining  as  a  leading  industry;  the  climate  and 
physiographic  features  of  the  La  Plata  country  recall  the 
prairies  of  the  United  States,  explaining  the  similarity  of 
products  in  these  two  regions.  Occupations  and  commercial 
progress  grow  naturally  out  of  the  industries;  these  form 
the  basis  for  the  study  of  the  development  of  the  people. 
The  rise  and  decline  of  a  nation  belong  to  the  realm  of 
history,  but  the  geographical  environment  must  be  known 

in  order  to  have  a  correct  understanding  of 

Of\««o1 

Conditions  ^e  conchtions  that  make  for  its  progress  or 

decline.     In  the  study  of  Switzerland,  the 

social  conditions  and  development  are  brought  strongly  into 

connection  with  the  physical  characteristics. 

In  the  study  of  a  continent  or  a  section  of  a  continent 
the  development  is  brought  out  clearly  by  a 
series  of  maps.  Skill  is  obtained  by  many 

short  exercises ;  first,  in  copying,  later,  in  drawing  from 

memory. 

EIGHTH  YEAR  GRADE 

A  final  study  of  the  subject  of  geography  is  given  during 
the  last  two  or  three  months  of  the  eighth  grade.    The  pupil 


26O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

now  possesses  a  knowledge  of  his  country's  history,  and  his 
powers  of  observation  are  sufficiently  mature  to  make  of 

this  final  work  more  than  a  mere  review. 
Completed  ^  ^ecomes  a  study  of  cause  and  effect, 

in  which  results  are  attained  that  could  not 
have  been  thought  of  in  the  lower  grades.  The  study  of  the 
continent  is  now  preceded  by  a  discussion  of  the  historical 
events  that  led  to  its  discovery,  settlement,  development,  and 
division  into  the  countries  of  today.  The  physical  and 
political  geography  is  reviewed,  stress  being  laid  upon  those 
features  that  constitute  important  causes  in  the  development 
of  the  country;  such  as,  navigable  rivers,  harbors,  mineral 
deposits,  agricultural  possibilities,  climate. 

Physical  and  political  maps  of  our  country  are  carefully 
drawn,  so  that  the  pupil's  knowledge  shall  be  very  exact  of 
the  location  and  boundaries  of  states,  location  of  cities  in 
reference  to  navigable  waters  and  to  railroad  connections, 
and,  later,  with  reference  to  surrounding  areas  of  produc- 
tion. Memory  drawing  of  individual  states  is  one  of  the 
best  means  of  securing  familiarity  with  the  location  of  im- 
portant cities,  rivers,  mountain  ranges,  and  boundaries. 
Groups  of  states  may  be  taken  up  in  the  same  way.  The 
results  of  this  kind  of  training  in  interest  and  accurate 
knowledge  are  surprising  to  those  who  try  the  method  for 
the  first  time.  Sketch  maps  of  the  United  States,  showing 
important  mineral  regions,  forest  areas,  wheat  and  corn 
belts,  and  the  regions  in  which  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  tobacco, 
and  other  staples  are  produced,  prepare  the  pupils  for  the 
readings  and  discussions  that  are  to  follow. 


PART  IV 
HISTORY    CIVICS 


CHAPTER  XIV 

INTRODUCTORY  WORDS.    HISTORY  IN  THE  PRIMARY 

GRADES 

Tie  greatest  teacher  of  mankind  is  man.  History  is  the 
record  of  men  and  their  achievements.  The  lessons  that 
are  set  forth  by  history  pertain  to  every  field  of  life  and 
labor.  Success  and  failure,  causes  and  results,  are  written 
large  on  every  page.  History  is  a  teacher,  silent  but  elo- 
quent. It  tells  impressively  of  the  need  of  character. 
Through  history  the  far-reaching  laws  of  existence,  the 
causes  and  results  of  events  in  the  life  of  an  individual  or  of 
a  nation,  may  be  interpreted  by  students.  Even  children 
may  read  their  signs,  and  who  can  say  how  lasting  will  be 
the  effects  upon  their  own  lives?  The  personality  of  an 
individual  and  the  importance  of  an  event  should  be  the 
basis  of  many  a  discussion  in  the  history  class. 

The  most  important  results  can  not  be  obtained  if  the 
pupils  read  principally  about  our  own  country.  Modern 
history  is  too  complex  to  form  the  best  grazing  ground  for 
young  minds.  Interest  in  its  events  and  some  knowledge  of 
its  needs  and  development,  we  must  have,  but  its  problems 
are  not  the  best  ones  for  the  young  student  to  attack.  More- 
over, American  life  is  an  outgrowth  from  the  older  social 
and  political  bodies  of  Europe,  whose  conditions  still  con- 
tinue to  influence  us.  In  the  less  complex  life  of  older 
countries,  of  more  primitive  times,  the  unerring  law  of 
cause  and  effect  can  be  traced  with  greater  ease  than  in  the 

263 


264  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

complicated  narratives  of  later  days  and  countries.  Besides, 
when  a  perspective  view  can  be  taken  down  several  centur- 
ies, confusing  details  are  subdued  or  entirely  hidden,  and 
there  are  thrown  into  striking  relief  the  broad  principles  chat 
have  meant  the  making  or  the  undoing  of  a  country.  Even 
a  sixth  or  a  seventh  grade  child  can  see  readily  that  the  giow- 
ing  corruption,  luxury,  and  vices  of  Rome  were  important 
reasons  for  the  downfall  of  that  country,  and  the  whole 
study  can  be  based  upon  stories  so  completely  that  theie  is 
no  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  child  that  the  teacher  is  moral- 
izing or  that  history  is  prosy.  On  the  contrary,  the  young 
reader  is  liable  to  feel  that  he  has  discovered  a  great  truth, 
and  he  will  pore  over  his  readings  with  an  intensity  of 
interest.  But,  to  produce  this  effect,  the  stories  can  not  be 
taken  at  haphazard,  they  must  be  well  selected  to  illus- 
trate the  phases  of  national  or  individual  life  that  it  is  de- 
sired to  teach. 

History  should  begin  with  carefully  chosen  stories  for 
the  primary  grades ;  it  should  not  become  a  serious  study 
before  the  seventh  year,  and  even  in  this 
Material  grade  the  story  element  should  still  pre- 

dominate. Throughout  the  primary  and 
early  grammar  grades  history  stories  should  be  for  cultural 
and  character  development  and  for  the  accumulation  of  a 
great  amount  of  information,  so  important  in  a  well- 
balanced,  educated  life.  The  training  that  can  be  derived 
from  history  studies  is  also  a  most  important  factor  in  the 
life  of  a  child.  As  the  pupil  passes  into  the  later  grammar 
grades,  the  subject  matter  becomes  more  scholarly  and  the 
presentation  grows  more  systematic. 

There  is  so  much  material  for  story  work  that  to  choose 


HISTORY   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES  26$ 

is  no  easy  task,  as  any  teacher  realizes  who  has  tried  to  out- 
line a  well  centered,  progressive  line  of  history  stories  for 
primary  grades.  The  folk  tales  that  so  often  form  a  begin- 
ning in  literature  are  well  suited  to  the  same  place  in  history, 
and  in  their  use  no  differentiation  of  the  two  studies  is  de- 
sirable. Fairy  stories  belong  to  a  different  category.  When 
used,  the  children  should  know  that  they  are  not  at  all  true, 
but  rarely  will  the  pleasure  in  them  be  diminished  by  such 
knowledge ;  the  change  in  attitude  toward  them  that  may  be 
noticed  is  desirable, — the  stronger  minds  will  begin  to  de- 
mand "  true  stories  "  very  early  in  school  life.  Fairy  stories 
rarely  accord  with  history,  they  belong  rather  to  the  branch- 
ing out  into  literature.  Myths,  if  given  their  true  value,  are 
enjoyed  at  a  later  period  of  development.  Myths  are  prop- 
erly a  part  of  history;  they  should  not  be  given  as  fairy 
stories,  except  perhaps,  those  charming  little  nature  myths 
that  so  delight  the  imagination  of  many  children,  especially 
in  the  first  and  second  years.  Myths  should  be  told,  read, 
enjoyed,  while  the  children  are  still  young  enough  to  delight 
in  their  ludicrous,  grotesque,  impossible  details ;  but  when, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  minds  are  mature  enough  to  see  the 
glimmering  of  truth  and  the  dawning  of  investigation  in 
these  beliefs  of  people  long  passed  away.  In  fifth  and  sixth 
grades,  many  pupils  find  great  satisfaction  in  tracing  out 
how  many  myths  came  into  being,  and  in  seeing  why  ad- 
vancing civilization  led  to  their  abandonment  or  to  their 
relegation  to  the  realms  of  poetry  and  art.  To  put  many 
myths  into  the  first,  second,  or  third  grade  is  about  as  seri- 
ous a  mistake  as  to  expect  high  school  pupils  to  read  with 
patience  or  pleasure  detailed  accounts  of  the  amours  of  the 
Greek  gods  and  goddesses.  The  absorbed  student  of  myths 


266  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

must  be  either  the  child,  just  awakening  into  half  amused, 
credulous  interest  in  the  world,  or  he  must  be  the  sedate 
student,  revelling  in  the  slow  upbuilding  of  the  mental  proc- 
esses of  civilization. 

Such  poems  as  "  Horatius,"  by  Lord  Macauley,  stories 
like  that  of  "  William  Tell,"  by  Schiller,  alternate  delight- 
fully with  the  folk  tales  of  the  second  year;  while  history 
becomes  more  marked  in  the  little  biographies  of  such  men 
as  Washington,  Franklin,  and  Lincoln.  From  the  third 
grade  on,  knowledge  of  the  world  grows  broader  and 
deeper;  and,  while  literature  and  history  are  frequently 
correlated  and  are  mutually  helpful,  the  two  studies  are 
clearly  differentiated. 

Although  consecutive  history  does  not  belong  to  the  first 
three  grades,  the  stories  gain  in  solidarity  by  grouping  those 

that   have   a   common   basis.     Topical   ar- 
Presentation  .  . 

rangement   becomes    marked   in   the   third 

grade,  where  the  stories  for  two  or  three  months  may  be 
devoted  to  the  development  of  one  line  of  thought,  as  Bible 
stories,  lives  of  inventors,  local  history.  A  systematic  way 
of  working  is  developed  if  the  teacher  insists  quietly  but 
regularly  upon  acceptable  forms.  Even  outlines,  such  helps 
in  literary  work,  are  used  readily  by  children,  provided  they 
are  active,  working  helps,  not  dead  matter  looked  upon  as 
the  end  to  be  attained.  Power  over  books  is  gained  steadily. 
Judgment  is  quickened  by  discussion.  The  importance  of 
definite  training  in  making  decisions  based  upon  proof  is 
manifest  when  we  think  how  many  children  reach  the  age 
of  ten,  eleven,  even  fifteen,  before  beginning  to  decide  for 
themselves.  A  personal  decision  before  this  age  too  fre- 
quently means  either  willfulness  or  disobedience;  hence,  to 


HISTORY   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES  267 

"  do  as  I  like  "  too  often  means  what  the  powers  in  authority 
do  not  like.  If  children  grow  up  with  this  idea,  we  may  be 
sure  that  they  will  not  change  it  suddenly  when  they  become 
men  and  women.  The  history  recitation  is  one  of  the  best 
places  in  the  school  for  learning  the  value  or  the  unimpor- 
tance of  one's  own  decision;  history  should  teach  how  to 
sum  up  evidence,  and  how  to  make  and  test  opinions. 

Throughout  the  eight   elementary   grades   several   aims 
should  be  kept  constantly  in  mind  by  the  teacher : — improve- 
ment in  reading  and  language;  acquisition 

Aims 

of  knowledge,  especially  through  familiarity 
with  many  well  known  stories,  for  the  children  will  never 
again  be  so  fascinated  by  the  pure  story  element,  and  they 
may  never  again  have  the  time  to  give  to  it;  constant  and 
systematic  mental  training;  development  of  the  capacity  for 
a  citizenship  that  is  rooted  in  love  for  country  and  apprecia- 
tion of  its  institutions,  and  that  is  broadened  and  strength- 
ened by  some  comparative  knowledge  of  other  countries ;  an 
unceasing  effort  for  the  conscious  and  unconscious  develop- 
ment of  the  child's  character,  possible  through  historical 
training,  the  study  of  real  men  and  women,  and  the  observa- 
tion of  the  great  movements  of  the  human  race. 

FIRST  YEAR  GRADE 

There  are  three  centers  around  which  are  grouped  the 
stories  for  the  first  grade : — some  of  the  holidays,  Bible  char- 
acters, Hiawatha.  The  holidays  are  attractive  local  centers 
of  interest,  and  are  good  bases  for  beginning  history  through 
biography.  They  give  to  a  holiday  something  of  its  true 
value,  and  should  lead  out  into  just  estimates  of  a  few  of 
our  great  men  and  events.  The  Bible  stories  are  simple 


268  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

narratives,  easily  remembered  because  of  the  natural  se- 
quence of  their  pictures  and  the  primitive  simplicity  of  their 

thoughts,  so  at  one  with  the  period  of  the 

child's  development.  They  offer  fine  oppor- 
tunities for  undogmatic  character  training,  and  for  laying 
the  foundation  of  a  knowledge  that  will  lead  into  rational 
views  on  historical  evolution.  These  stories  are  so  beauti- 
ful as  literature,  their  accounts  of  migrations,  customs,  and 
events  are  so  important  and  interesting  as  history,  that  only 
the  literary  and  historical  sides  should  be  presented  to  chil- 
dren. Custom  decrees  that  religious  phases  should  be  left 
untouched.  Hiawatha  takes  the  place  of  more  purely  his- 
torical material  because  of  its  charming  and  sympathetic 
treatment  of  the  lives  of  the  aborigines.  First  and  second 
grade  children  love  Hiawatha,  as  Longfellow  pictures  him 
to  us;  from  this  beautiful  poem  they  draw  a  truer  verdict 
about  the  lives  of  the  Indians  than  is  obtained  from  the 
stories  of  war  and  bloodshed  that  are  so  frequently  the  only 
knowledge  possessed  even  by  adults  about  the  Indians. 

Special  tact  and  training  should  be  possessed  by  the  one 
who  teaches  beginners  in  the  school  room,  for  the  task  has 

peculiar  difficulties.  The  history  must  be 
Problems  arranged  with  constant  reference  to  the 

problems  to  be  met.  From  the  first  sym- 
pathy must  be  established  between  the  teacher  and  the  little 
ones,  for  without  it  the  best  good  of  the  year  will  be  missed. 
One  of  the  earliest  lessons  for  the  untrained  little  minds  to 
master  is  the  meaning  of  attention  and  how  to  concentrate 
the  thoughts  upon  the  lesson.  A  well  told,  interesting  story 
is  invaluable  for  this  purpose;  history  is  full  of  stories  of 
absorbing  interest  for  young  as  well  as  old.  The  teacher's 


HISTORY  IN   PRIMARY   GRADES  269 

preparation  must  be  comprehensive,  both  for  the  presenta- 
tion of  the  story  to  the  class,  and  for  the  skillful  drawing  out 
of  its  reproduction  from  the  pupils.  The  various  desired 
results  must  be  very  clearly  in  mind,  as  must  also  the  steps 
by  which  the  children  pass  from  the  unknown  story  as  it 
comes  from  the  lips  of  the  teacher  to  the  completed  product 
in  their  memories  and  notebooks. 

For  the  first  two  years,  perhaps  longer,  presentation  of  a 
story  is  identical  in  history  and  literature;  later  comes  dif- 
ferentiation.    There  must  be  considered  the 
Presentation 

divisions  of  the  story,  the  mental  attitude 

and  development  of  the  pupils,  the  length  of  time  before  the 
reproduction  is  to  be  made.  The  portion  given  must  be  very 
complete  in  itself,  neither  too  short  for  the  arousing  of  inter- 
est, nor  too  long  for  comparatively  easy  retention  by  the 
memory.  All  possible  aids  to  the  narration  should  be  used, 
pictures,  curios,  blackboard  drawings,  sand  table  illustra- 
tions. Here  as  everywhere  sweet  discretion  must  never  be 
overlooked.  Too  many  pictures  leave  indistinct  memories; 
too  much  work  at  the  sand  table  becomes  tiresome.  Clear- 
ness of  perception,  alertness  of  interest,  these  are  the  guid- 
ing signs  by  which  the  teacher  notes  success. 

When  a  division  of  a  story  has  been  well  presented,  it 
should  be  reproduced.     The  story  interest  should  never  be 

lost  nor  frayed  out  by  repetition  after  repe- 
Reproduction 

tition.     The  division  of  the  story  for  the 

day  should  always  be  accompanied  by  a  specific  mechanical 
aim,  supported  by  the  interest  in  the  story  itself;  this  may 
be  a  ready  choice  of  words,  consecutive  thought,  a  really 
good  story,  or  clearly  presented  "  pictures."  No  one  day 
will  see  the  end  gained,  but  every  day  may  see  a  step  towards 


2/O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

the  desired  accomplishment.  The  majority  of  the  children 
need  to  drill  again  and  again  on  every  means  of  progress; 
but  there  is  no  monotony  if  the  stories  are  well  selected. 
The  stories  are  always  a  delight,  and  the  progress  in  the 
mechanics  of  thought  and  language  is  a  steady  growth. 

SECOND  YEAR  GRADE 

In  the  second  grade  as  in  the  first  no  attempt  is  made  to 
teach  history  as  a  subject.  The  stories  for  the  year  are  still 

grouped    around    the    holidays,    they    are 
Material 

chosen  because  of  some  correlation  with  the 

literature,  or  they  are  simple  biographies.  The  stories  sug- 
gested by  the  holidays  are  as  follows : — Admission  Day,  or 
'*  the  birthday  of  California,"  in  September ;  Thanksgiving 
Day;  Christmas.  The  stories  correlated  with  the  literature 
are  "  Horatius,"  the  poem  for  January;  "William  Tell," 
the  story  for  March;  and  Indian  life  made  interesting 
through  the  poem  of  "  Hiawatha."  The  more  purely  his- 
torical narratives  are  about  Columbus,  in  October;  and 
Washington's  boyhood  and  life  during  parts  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, given  in  February. 

The  work  in  the  first  grades  is  so  simple  that  there  is  no 
repetition  in  the  second  grades  even  when  the  subjects  reap- 
pear. For  instance,  the  Thanksgiving  story  in  the  second 
grade  tells  of  the  Pilgrims,  always  interesting  to  little  folks. 
The  Christmas  story  tells  of  the  babyhood  of  Christ,  the 
flight  into  Egypt,  and  other  points  that  belong  to  his  youth 
or  to  the  description  of  the  country  where  he  lived.  The 
stories  of  the  Indians  become  farther  reaching  than  was  at 
all  possible  in  the  first  grade,  including  little  studies  of 
Indian  wampum,  the  peace-pipe,  canoe  making. 


HISTORY   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES 

The  aims  of  the  work  in  history  during  the  second  year 
are  a  broadening  out  of  those  in  the  first  year.  The  pupils 

should  be  learning  more  about  the  world, 
Aims  and  .  .  -  .  t  .  ,  > 

Time  acquiring  their  knowledge   in   good   form, 

and  gaming  the  power  to  use  readily  what- 
ever they  learn.  The  time  for  history  is  the  same  as  in  the 
first  grade,  twenty  minutes  daily  for  two  weeks  out  of  every 
month.  This  period  is  used  variously  by  the  teachers,  ac- 
cording to  their  own  judgment  of  their  classes;  but,  ordi- 
narily, it  is  given  to  oral  presentation  and  reproductions,  the 
written  reproductions  being  put  into  the  time  for  penman- 
ship or  drills  in  writing,  and  the  illustrative  drawings  be- 
longing to  the  period  for  drawing.  The  history  story  is 
looked  upon  as  furnishing  material  for  these  subjects,  jtist 
as  is  the  case  with  the  literature  and  nature  study.  Written 
reproductions  and  drills  in  writing  can  be  worked  in  to- 
gether very  well  so  long  as  both  are  formal,  as  in  the  simple 
copying  of  the  stories.  When  original  stories  begin,  their 
writing  can  not  be  associated  with  drills  in  penmanship,  for 
the  latter  is  purely  formal  while  the  story  writing  is  largely 
creative,  at  least  in  the  meaning  of  creative  for  this  age. 

Some  teachers  prefer  to  tell  a  portion  of  the  story,  having 
the  reproduction  follow  immediately,  so  that  the  details  will 
._  ^  ,  not  be  forgotten.  In  this  method  the  teach- 

er's narration  will  extend  over  all  of  the  first 
week,  and  perhaps  part  of  the  second,  accompanied  every 
day  by  the  pupil's  reproduction  of  the  story  of  the  preceding 
day,  and  a  resume  of  the  narrative  as  just  given.  The  final 
review  takes  the  form  of  either  an  oral  or  a  written  repro- 
duction of  all  or  of  a  chosen  part  of  the  story.  If  time  per- 
mits, the  story  is  both  told  and  written  by  the  children. 


METHODS    IN    TEACHING 


The  following  is  from  a  second  grade  teacher1  : 
The  teacher  usually  tells  the  story  in  preference  to  reading 
it  in  order  to  'arouse  greater  interest  and  closer  attention  on 
the  part  of  the  children.  The  work  is  so  arranged  that  every 
day's  narration  is  a  natural  division  of  the  story.  For  in- 
stance, the  story  of  Columbus  is  divided  into  five  sections, 
one  for  every  day  of  the  week.  Monday,  a  talk  on  the  world 
as  people  knew  about  it  in  the  fifteenth  century,  including 
the  dangers  of  sea  navigation  at  that  time;  Tuesday,  boy- 
hood of  Columbus,  his  love  for  the  sea,  his  enjoyment  in  the 
sailors'  tales  ;  Wednesday,  his  early  manhood,  his  knowledge 
of  the  compass  ;  Thursday,  his  idea  about  the  rotundity  of 
the  earth,  his  appeals  for  aid  to  test  his  theories  ;  Friday,  his 
voyage,  with  its  dangers  and  difficulties,  and  the  discovery 
of  America.  Every  day  the  story  as  told  in  the  previous 
lesson  is  rapidly  reviewed,  sometimes  by  the  teacher,  some- 
times by  questions  answered  by  the  pupils. 

No  real  difficulties  are  given  in  these  stories,  neither  do 
they  go  deeply  into  any  part  of  the  life  of  Columbus.     They 
form  a  very  brief  sketch  of  some  of  the 
of  ,!jr  salient  points  known  about  the  great  ex- 

plorer, upon  which  later  studies  can  be  built 
without  wearisome  repetitions  of  the  trifling  details  that 
little  children  enjoy  in  these  first  glimpses  of  noted  men. 
The  desire  is  to  give  such  events  and  efforts  as  can  be  readily 
understood  and  remembered;  they  must  be  simple  enough 
to  be  grasped  by  children  ;  nevertheless,  they  must  be  in  ac- 
cordance with  accredited  history,  so  that  there  will  be  noth- 
ing to  unlearn  in  later  years. 

*Miss  Mary  E.  McDougald. 


HISTORY   IN   PRIMARY   GRADES  2/3 

ILLUSTRATIVE  PAPERS  BY  PUPILS,  SELECTED  SECTIONS. 

L 

THE  PILGRIMS 

a. 

These  people  were  called  Pilgrims. 

First  they  went  to  Holland,  but  the  Pilgrim  fathers  and 
mothers  did  not  like  it  there. 

The  children  were  learning  to  speak  Dutch. 

b. 

Some  of  them  did  not  want  to  go  to  church. 

The  fathers  and  mothers  were  not  satisfied. 

They  said,  "  Let  us  go  to  America." 

They  fitted  up  two  ships,  the  "Speedwell"  and  the 
"  Mayflower,"  and  started  across  the  Atlantic  ocean. 

The  "  Speedwell "  broke  down,  and  the  people  had  to 
come  in  the  "  Mayflower." 

c. 

Some  friendly  Indians  came  to  visit  the  Pilgrims. 

One  Indian,  called  Squanto,  spent  the  winter  with  them 
and  showed  them  how  to  plant  their  crops. 

In  the  autumn  the  Pilgrim  fathers  gathered  their  crops  of 
wheat  and  barley. 

II. 

OUR  FLAG 

June  14  is  our  flag's  birthday.  On  that  day,  one  hundred 
and  twenty  six  years  ago,  the  people  adopted  it  as  the  flag  of 
our  country. 

George  Washington  planned  the  flag.     It  was  to  have 
thirteen  stripes,  seven  red  ones  and  six  white.     These  were 
19 


2/4  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

to  represent  the  thirteen  states  which  then  made  up  the 
United  States.  The  field  of  the  flag  was  to  be  blue,  with 
thirteen  white  stars.  A  stripe  and  a  star  were  to  be  added 
whenever  a  new  state  came  into  the  Union. 

New  stars  and  stripes  were  added  until  there  were  fifteen 
of  each.  It  was  decided  then  to  have  always  thirteen  stripes 
in  memory  of  the  first  thirteen  states.  But  in  the  blue  field 
were  to  be  as  many  stars  as  there  are  states  in  the  Union. 
Now  the  flag  has  forty-five  stars.  When  a  new  state  comes 
into  the  Union  another  star  will  be  added. 

The  colors  of  the  flag  have  a  meaning  too.  The  red 
means  courage ;  the  white,  purity ;  and  the  blue,  truth. 

THIRD  YEAR  GRADE 

In  third  grade  history  there  is  the  same  arrangement  for 
time  as  in  the  two  lower  classes,  twenty  minutes  a  day  for 
two  weeks  in  every  month.  The  growing  powers  of  the 
child,  however,  make  possible  maturer  methods  of  work. 

The  story  is  now  read  to  the  class  as  often  as  it  is  told. 
The  relief  to  the  teacher  from  preparing  for  an  oral  pre- 
sentation makes  room  for  the  more  careful 

Drawings  oversight  of  written  reproductions,  becom- 

as  Aids  in 

Presentation          m§T  necessary  on  account  of  the  increasing 

length  of  the  papers  and  of  the  larger 
vocabularies  used.  Pictures  and  drawings  are  still,  as 
throughout  the  course,  an  ever-present  aid  in  teaching. 
Going  from  room  to  room  among  third  grades,  one  notes 
with  pleasure  the  growing  power  of  the  children  in  artistic 
illustration,  indicated  by  the  more  ambitious  drawings  on 
the  boards.  These  special  pictures,  by  the  best  artists  in  the 
class,  are  preserved  for  days,  valuable  aids  in  the  portrayal 


HISTORY  IN   PRIMARY   GRADES  2/5 

of  characters  and  events  of  the  story.  In  addition  to  them, 
every  pupil  is  expected  to  use  his  own  training  in  drawing 
in  making  original  illustrations  for  his  own  written  repro- 
duction. 

During  the  presentation  of  the  story,  questions  are  asked 
by  the  teacher  to  see  that  the  thought  has  been  fully  grasped. 
This  dropping  into  conversation  is  the  more  necessary  be- 
cause a  story  that  is  read  in  the  author's  own  version  usually 
contains  many  new  words ;  the  sentences  are  more  involved 
than  in  stories  which  the  teacher  has  carefully  adapted  to 
the  development  of  the  children;  it  is  also  more  difficult  to 
get  the  continuous  thought  out  of  reading  than  to  grasp  it 
from  a  well  told  story.  Therefore  reading  aloud  to  the  chil- 
dren is  a  training  for  them  that  must  not  be  neglected. 
They  must  be  learning  to  enjoy  books,  and  the  desire  to  read 
for  oneself  should  be  assiduously  cultivated. 

The  reproductions  begin  to  vary  in  their  nature.  Instead 
of  trusting  simply  to  the  memory  of  successive  events  as 
a  framework  for  the  complete  story,  the 
Topicg  pupils  are  frequently  called  upon  to  tell 

about  a  certain  event,  to  describe  some  per- 
son, or  to  narrate  how  an  occurrence  took  place.  That  is, 
the  child  is  being  trained  to  recite  topically;  to  keep  to  a 
certain  assigned  thought;  to  discriminate  between  the  im- 
portant and  the  trivial.  Not  much  can  be  done  in  this  line 
of  development,  but  the  first  steps  are  important  even  if  they 
are  short  and  faltering.  More  pointed  questions  are  asked 
than  in  the  lower  classes,  in  order  to  cultivate  exact  obser- 
vation and  accurate  retention  even  of  details. 

Outlining,  that  valuable  aid  to  later  historical  studies,  be- 
gins in  this  grade  in  the  most  elementary  manner.  The 


2/6  METHODS  IN  TEACHING 

children  are  asked  to  tell  what  are  the  principal  events, 
or  who  are  the  most  important  persons,  in  the  story.     Then 

Outlines  t^ley   are   *ec*   tO   arran£e   the   information 

given  in  some  consecutive  order.  It  is  an 
interesting  study  of  children's  minds  to  notice  how  scattered 
the  items  will  be  when  first  given,  and  what  an  effort  of 
memory  is  required  to  arrange  all  in  acceptable  consecutive 
form.  This  is  the  first  step  in  outlining,  in  arranging 
material  systematically.  The  little  outline  is  developed  in 
class,  written  upon  the  board  item  by  item,  as  evolved  by 
the  pupils,  and  it  is.  then  used  as  a  basis  for  written  work. 
From  the  first,  the  outline  should  be  a  help  to  the  pupils ;  it 
is  not  an  end  to  be  worked  for,  it  is  an  aid  in  the  use  of 
knowledge.  The  only  use  that  the  pupils  of  this  age  have 
for  the  outline  is  as  an  aid  in  writing  a  systematic,  complete 
paper.  Put  it  to  this  use,  and,  if  possible,  lead  the  children 
,to  see  how  much  more  systematic  the  work  can  be  by  its  use. 
When  an  outline  is  voluntarily  made  use  of  in  written  repro- 
ductions an  important  step  has  been  taken  in  developing  the 
analytical  powers. 

This  work  is  an  aid  in  the  regular  composition  exercises, 
for  it  is  very  easy  to  lead  pupils  to  put  thoughts  by  them- 
selves. That  which  groups  itself  into  a  thought  is  often  a 
natural  paragraph,  and  it  may  happen  that  by  this  simple 
training  in  the  separation  of  thoughts  a  third  grade  pupil 
will  pass  into  an  easy  and  comparatively  accurate  use  of  a 
third  grade  conception  of  a  paragraph.  The  successive 
headings  in  the  outline,  as  given  by  the  pupils,  are  usually 
the  subject  thoughts  for  the  successive  paragraphs.  No 
difficulties  or  uncertainties  are  presented  to  the  young 
minds;  they  simply  learn  that  that  which  we  have  to  say 


HISTORY  IN   PRIMARY   GRADES  2/7 

about  one  related  thought  is  put  by  itself  in  a  paragraph. 
They  see  that  Washington  could  not  be  made  the  subject  of 
a  paragraph,  for  it  is  the  subject  of  the  whole  paper,  and 
there  are  several  thoughts,  or  paragraphs,  about  Washing- 
ton ;  but  they  also  see  that  Washington  is  not  used  as  one  of 
the  headings  in  the  outline,  consequently  the  relation  of  the 
headings  to  the  subject  thoughts  of  paragraphs  is  not  inter- 
fered with.  It  would  be  unreasonable  to  say  that  there  is 
no  difficulty  in  this  training.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult,  for 
it  is  analysis ;  but  it  is  presented  in  so  elementary  a  way  that 
the  children  take  the  first  steps  with  comparative  ease,  thus 
beginning  to  understand  and  to  practice  dividing  a  dis- 
course into  its  parts,  analyzing  a  subject  into  its  thoughts. 
Pupils  like  to  think;  they  enjoy  the  conscious  training  of 
the  power  to  think  logically;  but  such  an  exercise  should 
always  be  short  in  order  not  to  tire  the  minds.  Of  course, 
the  thoughts  as  suggested  by  the  children  are  never  in  their 
right  order ;  subordinate  thoughts  are  always  appearing  in 
coordinate  rank  with  leading  headings ;  but  all  are  taken, 
written  upon  the  blackboard,  and  considered  by  the  children. 
Then  comes  the  fun  and  the  work  of  arranging  everything 
in  proper  succession  and  subordination.  In  this  third  grade 
outlining  very  few  subordinate  thoughts  are  written  down ; 
only  the  principal  thoughts,  those  that  are  to  be  the  subjects 
of  paragraphs,  are  written,  the  subordinate  thoughts  being 
talked  over  merely  to  show  the  pupils  to  which  principal 
heading  they  belong.  The  outline  as  thus  left  on  the  board 
J9  a  succession  of  headings  that  are  really  paragraph 
thoughts.  In  oral  work  the  next  day,  every  pupil  may  tell 
one  paragraph,  or,  perhaps,  all  the  story. 


2/8  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

The  following  are  some  of  the  results  out  of  the  experi- 
ence of  a  third  grade  teacher1 : 

The  first  oral  reproduction  is  often  started  out  by  ques- 
tions and  answers.  Narratives  are  based  upon  headings 
given  orally  by  the  teacher  or  written  upon  the  board  before 
the  children.  One  device,  frequently  employed,  is  to  ask 
the  pupils  for  word  pictures  of  people  or  events.  The  pupils 
are  first  asked  to  imagine  the  picture  clearly  to  themselves, 
then  to  tell  it  aloud.  Sometimes  the  whole  is  built  up  by 
several  children. 

The  first  stories  for  the  year  are  written  in  class,  the 

teacher  at  the  board  writing  the  sentences  that,  after  careful 

deliberation,   the   pupils   consider   the   best 

Writing  presentation    of    a   thought,    and    that   the 

teacher  considers  acceptable.     The  pupils  at 

their  seats  copy ;  sometimes  the  copying  is  done  later,  as  busy 

work.     Very  short  stories  are  written  by  the  pupils  without 

outlines   and   unaided   by   questions.     Short   and    frequent 

papers  are  more  satisfactory  from  all  points  of  view  than 

long  and  occasional  ones. 

Illustration  with  this  grade  is  very  interesting  and  is  pro- 
ductive of  many  good  results.  Pictures,  relics,  are  kept 

before  the  class.  Characteristic  ways  of 
Illustrative  .  .  ,  r 

Material  dressing,  houses  occupied,  and  other  facts 

are  collected  by  the  pupils.  Perry  pictures 
are  used  to  adorn  the  papers,  and  the  production  that  is  to 
be  thus  embellished  receives  the  utmost  care  in  preparation. 
Sometimes  these  penny  pictures  are  given  by  the  teacher  as 
a  mark  of  recognition  for  an  especially  meritorious  paper, 
or  the  children  purchase  them  for  themselves.  The  pupils 

lMiss  Elizabeth  Perry. 


HISTORY   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES  2/9 

are  easily  encouraged  to  bring  to  school  books  and  pictures 
relating  to  the  subject  in  hand;  indeed,  care  must  be  taken 
that  they  do  not  bring  them  too  freely.  Through  this  chan- 
nel it  is  often  possible  to  have  before  the  class  illustrative 
and  supplementary  material  that  would  be  quite  inaccessible 
otherwise.  Where  no  objection  is  raised  by  the  pupil  or  is 
probable  from  the  home  so  kindly  loaning  this  material,  it 
may  be  kept  on  a  table  in  the  schoolroom,  where  the  pupils 
can  look  it  over  at  their  leisure  and  where  the  teacher  can 
keep  it  under  supervision. 

Third  grade  pupils  are  interested  in  local  industries  and 
modern  conditions,  some  of  which  are  made  special  features 

of    the     year's     historical     course.     When 
.n  us  nes  printing  is  taken  up,  a  visit  to  the  news- 

Inventions  paper  office  is  usually  permitted  by  one  of 

the  daily  papers.  The  class  is  taken  in 
sections  for  the  greater  convenience  of  the  teacher,  for  more 
detailed  investigation,  and  in  order  to  be  less  trouble  in  the 
office.  Before  making  this  visit  the  modern  newspaper  is 
made  the  subject  of  study,  how  it  is  distributed,  how  news 
is  collected,  how  it  is  printed.  Some  terms,  such  as  type, 
stick,  galley,  form,  proof-sheet,  roller,  are  taught;  the 
objects  are  brought  to  school,  if  possible,  where  they  can  be 
seen  and  handled  by  the  children,  so  that  they  may  know 
the  various  objects  when  seen  in  the  printing  office,  and  that 
they  may  talk  about  them  more  intelligently.  Toy  presses 
are  brought  to  school,  and  some  of  the  busy  work  time  is 
devoted  to  setting  up  type.  Many  buy  type  and  set  it  up  at 
home.  Then  the  visit  to  the  printing  office  is  made. 

After  the  study  of  the  modern  newspaper,  the  children  are 
told   about   conditions   before   there   were   newspapers   of 


28O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

printed  books,  and  the  importance  of  printing  is  discussed. 
The  story  of  its  invention  and  inventors  is  then  full  of 
interest. 

Another  phase  of  third  grade  work  is  found  in  local  his- 
tory studies.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  children  make  only  a 
beginning,  leaving  real  research  for  maturer 
History  minds.  Nevertheless,  this  work  is  very  real 

to  the  little  folks,  and  it  is  of  great  import- 
ance in  creating  a  taste  for  such  investigations  and  in  bring- 
ing together  much  valuable  information  about  the  home 
town.  Old  landmarks  in  Stockton  are  hunted  out;  grand- 
parents and  old  residents,  some  of  whom  "  crossed  the 
plains  "  in  true  pioneer  style,  are  interviewed  about  their 
early  experiences  and  primitive  conditions  in  the  city  and 
county ;  many  interesting  facts  are  brought  into  class,  where 
they  are  talked  over  and  most  of  them  written  out  in  the 
notebooks  that  the  children  are  learning  to  keep.  A  map  of 
Stockton  is  drawn,  on  which  are  located  the  principal  places 
mentioned  in  the  lessons. 

A  pupil's  paper  on  local  history  is  given  below.  It  is 
uncorrected,  but  was  written  after  oral  reproductions  of  the 
subject  had  been  made  in  class. 

THE  BEAR  FLAG 

Many  years  ago  California  belonged  to  Mexico.  A  great 
many  Indians  lived  here,  a  few  Mexicans,  and  a  few  white 
people  who  came  to  trap  animals. 

The  people  in  the  East  did  not  know  much  about  Cali- 
fornia. They  thought  it  was  a  desert.  General  J.  C.  Fre- 
mont came  over  the  mountains  to  California  to  find  a  path. 
When  he  got  here  he  asked  the  Mexican  governor  for  per- 


HISTORY   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES  28 1 

mission  to  go  through  the  state.  But  he  refused.  So  he 
went  up  to  the  mountains  and  spent  the  winter.  In  the 
spring  he  started  for  Oregon.  On  his  way  he  found  that  a 
war  had  broken  out  between  United  States  and  Mexico.  So 
he  took  his  men  and  went  back  to  Sonoma.  Here  he  took 
the  Mexican  governor  prisoner.  They  took  down  the 
Mexican  flag  and  raised  the  bear  flag.  This  flag  was  made 
by  taking  a  piece  of  white  cloth  and  sewing  a  piece  of  red 
flannel  across  the  bottom.  With  the  juice  of  some  berries 
they  stained  a  bear  in  the  center.  In  the  upper  right  hand 
corner  they  made  a  star. 

Commodore  Sloat  came  into  Monterey  bay  with  an 
American  war  vessel.  He  told  his  men  to  haul  down  the 
Mexican  flag  and  put  up  the  American  flag.  So  California 
belonged  to  the  United  States.  They  sent  flags  to  San 
Francisco  and  Sonoma.  When  the  flag  reached  Sonoma 
they  hauled  down  the  bear  flag  and  with  cheers  raised  the 
American  flag. 

FOURTH  YEAR  GRADE 

History  in  the  fourth  grade  continues,  generally  speaking, 
along  the  biographical  lines  of  the  three  preceding  years. 
History  should  mean  to  the  children  man  and  the  develop- 
ment of  mankind,  and  there  is  no  means  of  producing  this 
effect  except  by  teaching  it  through  men.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  work  should  not  be  simply  the  story  of  a  man. 
History  is  far  broader  than  that,  just  as  the  life  of  one  per- 
son can  not  be  lived  for  himself  alone.  This,  indeed,  is  one 
of  the  lessons  that  it  is  hoped  the  children  will  learn  from  his- 
tory. Through  the  lives  of  the  men  about  whom  they  are 
learning  a  little,  they  should  see  the  broader  movements  of 


282  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

the  period  of  time  in  which  these  men  lived,  and  should 
begin  to  grasp  the  importance  of  a  man  to  his  period.  This 
is  one  of  the  first  lessons  in  estimating  the  relation  of  man  to 
his  surroundings,  and  one  of  special  meaning  in  a  republic. 
The  time  devoted  to  history  in  the  fourth  grades  is  the 
same  as  in  the  first  three  grades,  twenty  minutes  a  day  for 

two  weeks  of  every  month,  history  still 
Time 

alternating  with  nature  study.    The  children 

usually  enjoy  bringing  into  class  any  reading  or  pictures  that 
they  find  bearing  upon  the  history,  and,  unconsciously,  they 
are  thus  being  initiated  into  historical  research.  The  public 
library,  with  which  some  of  the  pupils  began  to  be  ac- 
quainted even  in  the  third  grade,  grows  constantly  in  use 
and  value  for  the  children,  many  a  pupil  commencing  to 
delight  in  the  books  found  there. 

The  study  of  inventors  who  have  contributed  greatly  to 
the  progress  of  the  world  is  continued  in  this  grade.     The 
steam-engine  in  its  modern  uses  is  observed 
Inventions  an(j  Discussed  jn  ciass   untji  the  importance 

and 
Inventors  °f  tne  invention  to  the  world  is  called  to  the 

attention  of  the  children.  Then  the  lives  of 
James  Watt,  George  Stephenson,  and  Robert  Fulton  are 
studied.  Electricity,  its  many  uses  and  its  marvellous  aid  to 
modern  life  are  talked  over;  Edison's  life,  which  follows,  is 
always  fascinating  to  the  children.  A  trip  to  the  woolen 
mills  is  preceded  by  preparing  the  children  for  what  they 
are  to  see,  and  is  followed  by  a  study  of  some  of  the  primi- 
tive methods  of  weaving  and  the  products  of  simple  looms. 
Some  attention  is  given  to  different  materials,  and  consider- 
able thought  is  directed  toward  the  importance  of  the  inven- 
tion to  the  civilization  of  the  world.  An  invention  is  never 


HISTORY   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES  283 

studied  as  an  isolated  fact.  Its  importance  to  man,  its  re- 
lation to  the  advancement  of  civilization,  and  its  place  in 
modern  life,  are  all  points  for  consideration.  These  studies 
are  elementary,  suited  to  the  stage  of  development  of  the 
children;  their  purpose  is  to  turn  the  young  minds  toward 
existing  conditions,  the  way  in  which  they  came  into  being, 
and  the  part  taken  by  man  in  their  evolution. 

Local  history,  first  studied  in  the  third  grade,  begins  to 
take  its  place  in  relation  to  the  history  of  the  nation.  The 
first  local  history  concerns  the  Indians,  but 
History  ^is  year  it  is  the  California  Indians  that 

are  studied.  The  children  see  the  actual 
daily  life  of  the  Indians  of  our  state  woven  into  an  interest- 
ing story,  that  of  "  Docas."  After  the  work  on  the  natives, 
there  come  the  lives  and  adventures  of  some  of  the  earliest 
explorers  in  California  and  along  the  Pacific  coast.  This 
naturally  leads  into  the  accounts  of  the  Spanish  gold  seek- 
ers, then  into  the  settlements  made  by  the  Spanish  in  the 
west.  The  connection  is  kept  with  explorations  in  Mexico 
and  trips  of  Spanish  galleons  to  the  Philippines.  Maps  and 
the  globe  are  in  constant  use,  so  that  a  fairly  clear  child's 
idea  of  these  events  is  obtained,  and  deep  interest  in  them 
rarely  flags.  As  the  first  of  this  period  antedates  the  settle- 
ments of  the  English  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  it  is  a  fitting 
introduction  to  American  history  in  the  following  year. 

The  presentation  of  a  story  is  similar  to  that  of  the  third 
grade,  except  that  the  ripening  powers  of  the  children  per- 

Presentation          m^  ^e  Use  °*  more  mature  methods.     The 

teacher  now  rarely  tells  the  story ;  it  is  read, 

if  it  is  obtainable  in  a  form  suitable  for  the  understanding  of 

the  children.     The  pupils  are  also  reading  for  themselves. 


284  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

They  usually  become  interested  after  a  story  has  been  com- 
menced in  class  by  the  teacher  and  either  read  from  the  book 
used  by  the  teacher  or  they  succeed  in  finding  other  sources 
of  information.  In  the  latter  case,  considerable  additional 
material  may  be  brought  into  class,  always  a  delightful 
digression  from  the  regular  form  of  presentation. 

The  children  are  now  mature  enough  to  be  led  to  see  the 
daily  division  of  the  story  as  a  whole  by  taking  a  few 

moments  at  the  end  of  the  period  for  select- 
Outlines 

ing  essential  points  and  writing  them  on  the 

board.  This  systematizes  the  information,  emphasizes  the 
leading  thoughts,  and  visualizes  the  whole  lesson  in  a  com- 
pact form  that  is  readily  retained  in  the  memory.  It  is  an 
invaluable  touch  of  training.  This  simple  outline  must  be  a 
means  to  the  end,  or  the  weaker  minds  in  the  class  will  be 
repelled  and  discouraged  by  the  real  difficulty  of  analyzing 
and  systematizing.  The  children  must  see  the  aid  that  they 
receive  from  the  outline ;  they  must  not  be  left  with  the  idea 
that  they  have  worked  in  order  to  produce  the  outline.  The 
outline  was  made  in  order  to  be  used. 

The  treatment  of  the  writing  and  correction  of  the  many 
papers  that  accompany  history  belong  to  the  section  under 
language.  The  writing,  the  creative  side,  belongs  to  his- 
tory; the  correction,  the  mechanical  side,  belongs  purely  to 
language. 

ILLUSTRATIVE   PAPERS   FROM   PUPILS. 
UNCORRECTED 

I. 

How  STEAM  DOES  ITS  WORK 

We  had  a  glass  tube  with  water  in  it,  and  it  was  corked 
tight  at  the  top.  And  it  opened  at  one  side. 


-   'HISTORY   IN    PRIMARY   GRADES  255 

We  held  this  tube  over  a  flame  until  the  water  in  the  tube 
boiled.  We  put  a  little  stopper  in  the  side  hole  and  the 
steam  which  the  water  made  pushed  the  stopper  from  a  little 
way  in  the  tube  to  the  end  and  then  popped  out  on  the  floor. 
It  came  out  because  the  steam  had  such  a  pressure. 

(There  follow  several  papers  on  James  Watt,  George 
Stephenson,  and  Robert  Fulton,  showing  the  invention  and 
development  of  the  steam  engine.  The  experiments  with 
steam  preceded  the  stories  of  the  inventors,  so  that  their 
work  might  be  more  fully  appreciated.) 

II. 

One  story  is  chosen  from  the  many  written  by  the  pupils 
on  early  California. 

FINDING  MONTEREY 

Portola  came  back  to  San  Diego  discouraged  and  said 
there  was  no  Monterey.  But  Father  Junipero  Serra  who 
had  heard  Portola's  story  thought  that  they  had 'found  the 
bay,  but  didn't  know  it.  Portola  was  so  discouraged  that 
he  wanted  to  go  back  to  New  Spain.  He  said.  "  Our  food  is 
giving  out,  and  we  shall  starve  to  death  if  we  don't  go  back. 
Measure  out  the  food  and  see  how  long  we  can  stay,  and  on 
the  next  day  we  will  start."  So  they  measured  out  the  food 
and  it  would  just  keep  them  twenty  days.  The  days  dragged 
by  and  the  nineteenth  day  came.  They  packed  their  bag- 
gage, and  fixed  the  vessel,  and  were  already  to  start,  but 
early  on  the  twentieth  morning  a  cry  rang  through  the  camp, 
"  A  sail !  A  sail !"  They  all  ran  out  and  there  was  a  sail  in 
a  distance.  This  ship  brought  food  and  a  letter. 


286  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

As  soon  as  they  could  they  started  up  the  coast  one  party 
by  land  and  the  other  by  water.  They  soon  got  at  Monterey 
and  set  up  an  altar  and  they  swung  the  bells  which  rang  out 
to  the  sleeping  hills,  they  then  fired  volley  after  volley  and 
they,  too,  rang  out  the  claims  of  the  Spanish  King. 


CHAPTER  XV 

HISTORY  IN  THE  GRAMMAR  GRADES 
FIFTH  YEAR  GRADE 

In  the  fifth  grade  the  pupils  are  considered  old  enough  to 
commence  a  systematic  study  of  the  history  of  our  country ; 

a  text  book  is  put  into  their  hands,  and  the 
Material 

story  is  made  continuous.    The  time  is  also 

extended,  in  order  to  give  a  longer  period  for  consecutive 
work,  and  history  alternates  month  by  month  with  literature. 
The  daily  period  is  also  lengthened  by  the  introduction  of  a 
definite  time  for  the  preparation  of  the  lesson  by  the  children, 
twenty  or  twenty-five  minutes  for  study.  The  lives  of  men 
are  still  the  centers  of  the  stories,  for  with  children  no  inter- 
est is  stronger  than  that  of  human  life ;  but  periods  of  history 
are  marked  off  far  more  distinctly  than  in  the  preceding 
years.  This  is  very  easily  accomplished  in  the  child's  mind, 
but  the  teacher  must  be  skillful  in  keeping  the  right  propor- 
tion between  periods  and  between  men. 

In  the  fourth  grade  the  pupils  have  become  somewhat 
familiar  with  maps  and  the  globe,  so  the  period  of  explora- 
tions and  discoveries  is  preceded  by  considerable  geographi- 
cal study,  in  order  to  obtain  an  idea  of  what  constituted  the 
known  world  in  the  times  preceding  Columbus.  Without 
such  an  introduction  no  clear  idea  can  be  gained  of  the  rea- 
sons for  the  voyages  that  resulted  in  the  discovery  of 
America.  The  children  can  understand  in  part  the  frenzied 

287 


288  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

search  for  the  wealth  of  the  Indies,  and  time  can  even  be 
found  to  tell  a  little  of  the  story  of  Vasco  da  Gama  and  of 
that  of  Marco  Polo.  Thus  the  efforts  and  voyages  of 
Columbus  begin  to  take  their  right  place  in  the  world's  his- 
tory, and  his  long  trip  to  the  west  across  the  mysterious 
Atlantic  has  a  new  meaning  to  the  children.  They  have 
already,  in  the  fourth  grade,  heard  some  of  the  stories  about 
the  coming  of  the  Spaniards ;  here  is  the  opportunity,  in  the 
fifth  grade,  to  show  how  these  explorers  had  followed  fast 
on  the  track  of  Columbus,  eager  to  take  advantage  of  his 
discoveries.  This  review  of  the  fourth  grade  stories,  the 
more  detailed  accounts  of  Columbus,  round  out  sufficiently 
for  the  fifth  grade  the  Spanish  explorations.  The  discover- 
ies of  the  French  are  omitted  entirely ;  those  of  the  English 
center  around  the  Cabots,  Henry  Hudson,  and  the  settle- 
ments in  Virginia,  Massachusetts,  and  Pennsylvania.  The 
colonial  life  is  given  character  and  distinctive  existence  by 
the  stories  that  cluster  around  the  lives  of  such  men  as  Miles 
Standish,  Benjamin  Franklin,  William  Penn,  the  boyhood  of 
Washington,  and  the  Indians. 

It  is  not  the  accumulation  of  historical  facts  that  is  de- 
sired, there  will  be  plenty  of  time  for  them  later.  It  is  the 
picturing  by  the  children  of  the  life  of  a 
period  that  is  valuable,  the  collection  of 
many  details,  incidents,  stories,  that  will  vivify  a  period  and 
give  it  reality  in  later  history  study.  There  should  be  a 
solidarity  about  every  period.  The  life  should  be  seen  in 
those  details  that  are  dear  to  the  hearts  of  all  children :  the 
houses  lived  in,  the  mails,  the  work  done,  the  implements 
used,  the  means  of  transportation,  the  love  for  England,  the 
kind  of  liberty  that  came  to  the  dwellers  in  the  new  land. 


HISTORY   IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES  289 

This  is  not  difficult,  for  all  of  it  can  be  found  in  the  stories 
of  the  period,  in  illustrations,  and  from  knowing  what  the 
men  themselves  did  and  how  they  accomplished  their  ends. 
The  work  should  always  be  more  than  pure  biography,  it 
should  be  a  picture  of  the  time  studied. 

In  the  latter  half  of  the  year  there  are  given  stories  of 
the  Revolution,  the  Opening  of  the  West,  and  the  Civil  War. 
To  the  child  Washington  is  the  man  most  intimately  asso- 
ciated with  the  Revolution,  and  the  war  is  grouped  around 
his  heroic  struggles.  Daniel  Boone  is  the  hero  of  the  period 
of  expansion  that  followed  the  establishment  of  peace,  and 
intensely  interesting  he  is  to  the  children.  Abraham  Lincoln 
is  the  hero  of  the  Civil  War.  Stories  of  this  great  Ameri- 
can, heard  by  the  pupils  in  the  third  grade,  are  renewed,  and 
to  them  are  added  many  others  showing  the  determined 
effort  of  Lincoln  that  all  human  beings  in  our  country  should 
be  free.  The  war  is  not  studied  as  a  war ;  it  is  a  background 
on  which  are  sketched  some  of  the  great  incidents  in  the 
life  and  efforts  of  Lincoln. 

The  children  are  now  delighted  to  read  for  themselves,  if 
the  way  is  only  opened  for  them,  and  they  will  search 
happily  and  persistently  for  reading  on 
topics  in  which  they  have  been  interested. 
It  is  often  surprising  what  mature  books  children  will  read 
understandingly,  if  they  have  only  been  given  enough  of  the 
story  to  be  able  to  follow  its  development  through  even 
unknown  words  and  new  sentence  forms.  While  books  for 
children  are  not  to  be  decried,  still  much  of  the  so-called 
juvenile  reading  is  so  puerile  as  to  be  a  positive  injury  to 
young  minds.  As  squirrel's  teeth  are  kept  sharp  and  clean 
by  gnawing  hard  substances,  so  children's  minds  are  sharp- 

20 


290  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

ened  and  brightened  by  contact  with  invigorating  mental 
food.  What  difference  does  it  make  if  there  are  in  a  book 
many  words  that  a  child  has  never  seen  before  ?  How  is  he 
to  learn  new  words?  To  give  a  child  interesting  reading 
containing  many  words  whose  meaning  he  does  not  know  is 
like  giving  a  squirrel  nuts  to  crack.  If  the  story  is  alluring, 
the  meaning  of  the  new  words  will  be  found  out  by  some 
means. 

The  outline,   used   tentatively   in  the  third  and   fourth 
grades,  becomes  a  recognized  tool  during  this  year.     The 

teacher's  outline  may  sometimes  be  used  as 
Outlines 

a  model  and  an  incentive  to  progress,  and 

the  teacher  should  often  work  over  with  the  pupils  their 
outlines.  As  such  a  lesson  is  very  instructive  for  all  the 
class,  board  work  is  better  than  individual  criticisms.  The 
teacher  must  not  be  too  ambitious  for  her  pupils  in  this 
acquirement.  It  must  be  remembered  that  outlines  are 
largely  a  matter  of  judgment,  a  faculty  slightly  developed 
with  fifth  grade  pupils.  The  training  to  be  derived  from 
outlines  in  this  grade  is  the  help  they  afford  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  judgment,  of  the  power  of  analysis,  and  of  the 
ability  to  put  together  in  a  continuous,  systematic  form  the 
thoughts  of  any  whole.  These  three  processes,  at  least,  are 
involved.  A  story  is  before  a  child  as  a  whole,  as  the 
teacher  has  told  it,  or  as  he  has  read  it  for  himself.  He  is 
to  mention  the  various  important  thoughts  in  that  story; 
that  is,  he  is  to  analyze  it,  selecting  certain  thoughts  and  re- 
jecting others.  Then  he  is  to  arrange  those  thoughts  ac- 
cording to  their  proper  relation  to  one  another;  that  is,  he  is 
to  exercise  continuity  of  thought.  When  we  think  how 
many  mature  people  are  lacking  in  judgment,  analysis,  or 


HISTORY  IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES  29! 

continuity  of  thought,  we  must  be  very  considerate  about 
the  young  minds,  and  not  tax  them  too  severely.  We  wish  to 
give  them  just  the  powers  so  conspicuously  lacking  in  many 
people,  but  if  too  much  is  asked  in  difficult  lines,  a  distaste 
for  the  work  is  created  that  may  never  be  overcome.  In 
fifth  grades,  and  even  throughout  all  the  grammar  grades 
and  the  first  year  of  the  high  school,  outlines  should  be  very 
simple,  rarely  going  to  more  than  a  second  indentation,  that 
is,  to  the  second  division  of  a  thought.  They  should  also 
be  of  use  to  a  child,  an  aid  in  doing  some  work,  for  the 
thought  should  never  be  permitted  that  the  outline  is  the  end 
for  which  one  is  working;  it  is  a  tool.  The  outlines  should 
be  made  because  they  are  to  be  used  in  reproductions,  in  reci- 
tations, in  writing,  in  memorizing,  in  examinations.  Their 
frequent  use  in  this  way  leads  a  child  to  depend  upon  them, 
which  really  means  that  the  minds  are  being  trained  to  de- 
pend upon  order,  system,  judgment,  analysis.  Is  this  not  a 
desirable  end?  Nevertheless,  I  have  known  teachers  who 
stopped  using  outlines  when  they  noticed  that  the  children 
were  beginning  to  depend  upon  them !  Did  such  teachers 
comprehend  the  first  uses  of  an  outline? 

Recitations  must  be  varied  in  order  not  to  become  monot- 
onous.    The  child  is  roused  to  strive  for  a  clearer  under- 
standing of  what  he  is  studying"  if  he  does 
Reproduction 

not  know  whether  he  is  simply  to  tell  the 

story,  or  to  be  quizzed  searchingly,  or  to  uphold  his  views 
and  knowledge  in  discussions  with  fellow-pupils.  Discus- 
sions are  excellent  eye-openers,  and  serve  to  make  the  chil- 
dren alert  to  ideas,  judgments,  and  conclusions.  The  talk- 
ers should  not  be  permitted  to  become  personal  in  their  argu- 
ments, but  a  discussion  can  be  very  brisk  and  instructive 


292  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

without  any  objectionable  features.  Quizzes  put  a  child 
on  the  watch  to  know  everything  that  he  can  find  out  about 
a  lesson,  and  they  give  a  teacher  chance  to  probe  deep  into 
real  and  assumed  knowledge.  Reproductions  give  a  pupil 
confidence  in  himself,  by  leading  him  to  stand  before  a  class, 
to  try  to  express  himself  understandingly,  and  to  tell  a  com- 
plete story  in  an  interesting  manner.  Unless  a  story  is  very 
short,  a  child  should  rarely  be  called  upon  to  "  tell  all  he 
knows  "  about  a  story.  Such  a  request  leads  to  diffuseness, 
to  scattering  thoughts,  to  bombast.  Give  a  topic,  and  hold 
a  child  to  careful,  well  expressed  reproduction  of  that  part 
of  the  story,  with  no  wanderings  into  any  other  portion.  If 
it  is  really  desired  to  test  a  child's  memory  of  a  whole  story, 
it  is  better  that  he  should  reproduce  it  according  to  the  out- 
line, following  the  principal  thoughts  and  omitting  the  de- 
tails; but  this  is  summarizing,  not  reproducing. 

Fifth  grade  pupils  understand  and  enjoy  maps  and  the 
globe.  During  the  whole  period  of  explorations  and  dis- 
coveries the  globe  is  an  essential  aid.  It 
should  be  used  in  connection  with  wall  maps 
of  the  sections  under  discussion.  In  the 
period  of  settlements,  the  map  of  the  United  States  is  pre- 
ferable to  maps  of  states  or  of  special  localities,  for  the  pupils 
are  not  yet  familiar  enough  with  the  outlines  of  the  whole 
country  to  study  profitably  the  details  of  smaller  portions. 
Trace  out  settlements,  arctic  explorations,  crossing  the 
mountains  into  the  valleys  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi.  The 
pupils  should  draw  many  outline  maps. 

History  made  interesting  to  the  children  can  not  fail  to  be 
productive  of  results  in  character  building.     Love  for  some 


HISTORY   IN    GRAMMAR   GRADES  293 

of  our  great  men,  admiration  for  their  energy,  self-sacrifices, 
and  persistency,  tend  to  elevate  the  ideals  of  children.  They 
can  not  study  the  characteristics  of  men, 
Results  watching  a  boy  become  great,  as  Washing- 

Gained  *on>  Franklin,  Lincoln,  seeing  the  strength 

of  character  behind  the  deeds,  realizing 
the  difficulties  to  be  overcome,  without  looking  on  life  gener- 
ally, and  their  own  lives  in  particular,  in  a  broader,  better 
way.  One's  own  difficulties  seem  less  when  compared  with 
what  some  one  else  has  overcome,  and  on  which  he  has  risen 
to  strong  and  noble  manhood.  From  the  warnings  and 
examples  of  history  one  should  learn  better  living  and 
greater  love  for  home  and  country. 

The  following  thoughts  are  from  a  fifth  grade  teacher1 : 

One  of  the  chief  values  of  history  work  lies  in  the  oppor- 
tunity which  it  affords  for  teaching  good  habits  of  study. 
Every  day  some  independent  preparation 
of  Study  must  be  made  by  the  pupil.  This  should  be 

carefully  assigned,  so  that  too  much  is  not 
required  in  a  given  time.  One  of  the  principal  reasons  for 
poor  preparation  of  work  in  all  studies  in  the  grades  is  that 
too  much  is  expected  for  the  length  of  the  period  for  study. 
Lessons  half  learned  a  few  times  lead  to  careless  habits  of 
preparation  that  might  have  been  avoided  had  but  little  been 
required  but  thorough  mastery  insisted  upon. 

Another  fault  is  that  the  teacher  works  too  much  with  the 
class,  too  little  time  being  given  to  independent  preparation. 
Some  pupils  thus  gain  nearly  all  of  their  knowledge  from 
class  work,  and  almost  the  only  habit  formed  is  the  destruc- 
tive one  of  dependence.  The  chief  value  of  working  in 

1Miss  Elma  Hopkins. 


294  METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

sections  is  that  the  child  is  forced  to  work  without  help  from 
the  teacher  and  to  depend  upon  himself. 

Outlines  prepared  by  the  teacher  are  used  freely  in  the 

preparation  of  a  lesson.     Only  important  points  are  noted, 

so  that  the  pupils  know  for  what  they  are 

Preparation  tO   be   held    answerable-     Their   use     while 

studying  accustoms  a  child  to  a  systematic 

arrangement  of  the  material  in  a  lesson  from  its  assignment 
to  the  final  writing.  Sometimes  the  outline  is  screened  from 
view  while  the  class  is  studying  the  lesson  for  the  first  time ; 
then,  with  book  closed  and  outline  in  view,  every  pupil  is 
supposed  to  go  over  the  lesson  again,  testing  his  knowledge, 
discovering  his  weak  places,  and,  finally,  looking  up  what- 
ever he  does  not  know  well. 

The  outline  given  below  is  a  composite,  made  in  class  and 
copied  from  the  board,  showing  how  the  pupils  are  trained 
to  make  and  use  outlines. 

I. 

HENRY  HUDSON 

I.  Conditions  three  hundred  years  ago. 

1.  England  poor. 

2.  Spain  rich  from  gold  mines  in  America. 

3.  Portugal  rich  by  southern  route  to  Asia. 
II.  Muscovy  Company  formed. 

1.  Wish  to  find  northern  route  to  Asia. 

a.  Failure. 

b.  Trade  with  Russia. 

2.  Henry  Hudson  employed  by  the  Muscovy  Com- 

pany. 
a.  Found  no  northern  route  to  Asia. 


HISTORY  IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES  295 

b.  Found  many  whales. 

c.  Stopped  by  ice  on  second  voyage. 
3.  Muscovy  Company  discouraged. 

a.  Decide  to  make  money  from  whales. 
III.  Hudson  employed  by  the  Dutch  East  India  Company. 

An  original  outline  follows,  showing  how  slowly  the 
pupil's  mind  grasps  the  large  headings  which  are  to  be  sub- 
divided. Details  stand  out  unrelated  to  a  main  topic.  No 
corrections  have  been  made. 

II. 
MORSE  AND  THE  TELEGRAPH 

I.  Difficulties  before  the  invention  of  the  telegraph. 

I.  Mail  carried  on  horseback. 
II.  Morse  sent  to  Yale  College. 

1.  Interested  in  electricity. 

2.  Becomes  a  painter. 

III.  In  1832  Morse  sails  to  Europe. 

IV.  Morse  plans  the  telegraph. 

V.  Morse  becomes  a  professor  in  1835. 
VI.  Morse  meets  young  Vail.. 

I.  Experiment  by  Vail  and  Morse. 
VII.  Judge  Vail  decides  to  give  Morse  money. 
VIII.  Vail  improves  Morse's  invention. 
IX.  Judge  Vail  growing  discouraged. 
X.  Telegraph  proves  successful. 
XI.  Congress  gives  Morse  money. 
XII.  Puts  wires  underground  but  fails. 
XIII.  In  1844  Miss  Ellsworth  sent  first  message  over  the 
wires. 


296  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

SIXTH  YEAR  GRADE 

As  the  pupils  grow  older  their  work  should  become  more 

scholarly  and  their  methods  of  reproduction  and  composition 

should  be  growing  more  and  more  mature. 

Need  of 

M  t  r-  i  The  grammar  grades  are  the  starved  grades 

in  many  schools,  although  unconsciously  so. 
Children  in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades  can  read 
much  if  they  have  the  material.  They  long  to  know  about 
the  world,  the  whole  world ;  no  country  is  so  remote  that  it 
can  not  arouse  their  curiosity,  no  people  so  quaint  that  it  can 
not  interest  them.  The  sense  of  acquisitiveness  is  so  strong 
at  this  time  that,  rightly  managed,  an  immense  amount  of 
information  can  be  gained  between  the  years  of  eleven  and 
fifteen.  How  much  many  children  read  at  home!  How 
eager  they  are  to  visit  every  "  show  "  that  comes  along !  It 
is  the  natural  desire  of  the  time  of  life.  The  world  is  be- 
ginning to  assert  its  hold  over  the  imaginations,  and  these 
are  the  years  when  habits  of  work  and  reading  are  becoming 
life  methods.  This  condition  is  not  fully  enough  recognized 
in  our  schools;  to  do  so  would  be  expensive,  for  it  would 
mean  equipping  grade  libraries.  Consequently,  children 
suffer  from  an  ill-timed  economy.  There  should  be  books 
in  abundance  where  the  children  can  use  them  freely.  These 
should  be  on  all  subjects  within  the  comprehension  of  the 
children,  and  some  of  them  should  be  leading  out  into  new 
fields  of  thought  so  attractively  that  inquiring  minds  will  be 
charmed  along  hitherto  unknown  paths.  Better  equip- 
ments for  children  in  science  and  manual  training  are  being 
granted  in  many  schools,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  pur- 
chase of  well  selected  grade  libraries  for  every  school,  or 


HISTORY   IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES 

every  small  group  of  schools,  will  be  one  of  the  steps  taken 
in  the  near  future. 

The  history  of  the  sixth  grade  is  arranged  to  meet  the 

craving  to  know  about  the  world.     There  are  stories  of  the 

earliest  days,  when  human  beings  lived  in 

Civ  I  It 

caves;  then  the  life  of  mankind  is  traced 
Grade 
Stories  down  through  the  development  of  several 

nations.  It  is  not  intended  to  study  history 
seriously,  but  it  is  desired  to  place  before  the  children  con- 
siderable reliable  information  about  the  past,  so  that  a  truer 
understanding  may  be  gained  eventually  of  our  own  life  and 
place  in  the  world.  In  this  way,  sixth  grades  read  many 
stories  of  ancient  history,  before  the  era  of  Christ.  Seventh 
and  eighth  grades  take  up  stories  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  of 
England.  During  these  last  two  years  the  United  States 
history  is  the  regular  class  work,  and  we  find  that  it  is  more 
easily  mastered  because  of  all  the  story  work  on  earlier 
nations  that  has  preceded.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
stories,  read  and  discussed  as  such,  are  often  more  easily 
remembered  than  is  the  American  history,  the  work  for  the 
class. 

This  distribution  of  time  and  application  serves  well  the 
culture  growth  of  the  children ;  for,  having  once  become 
acquainted  with  the  true  stories  of  history,  few  pupils  lose 
their  liking  for  this  great  study,  "  the  story  of  man."  To 
attain  this  end  the  pupils  must  like  the  stories.  This  can 
be  done  by  remembering  that  knowledge  is  not  the  first  and 
only  object  sought.  The  purposes  are  rather:  the  forma- 
tion of  a  deep  and  lasting  interest  in  history;  an  apprecia- 
tive study  of  man  and  his  development;  mental  training  in 
rapid  reading,  accumulation  of  facts,  ready  discussion, 


298  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

formation  of  judgments  based  upon  proofs,  and  systematic 
arrangement  of  the  knowledge  gained ;  historical  knowledge. 

In  order  to  like  history  a  child  must  read  easily  and  widely, 
not  narrowly  and  intensely  on  a  short  period  of  time  where 
he  is  expected  to  master  all  the  details.  To 
Training  study  the  men  about  whom  he  reads,  he 

must  discuss  their  motives  and  characters, 
and  he  must  compare  them  with  one  another.  To  acquire 
mental  training  the  material  used  must  be  systematized,  and 
the  judgment  must  be  exercised  and  developed.  In  all  these 
efforts  at  education  the  teacher  must  remember  that  sixth 
grade  training  must  be  simple.  Discussions  and  decisions 
will  be  crude,  but  the  fact  of  using  powers  means  their 
growth.  The  pupils  are  in  the  story  age.  They  can  read 
many  accounts  that  turn  about  the  same  center  of  knowledge 
without  tiring  of  the  subject.  Thus,  by  varying  the  stories 
but  keeping  the  same  center  of  thought,  material  is  accu- 
mulated for  discussions,  comparisons,  outlines;  and  broader 
knowledge  comes  from  the  presentation  of  a  thought  or  fact 
in  several  different  guises. 

For  instance,  the  love  of  the  Greeks  for  adventurous  ex- 
peditions comes  out  very  clearly  from  reading  the  stories  of 
Jason,  the  Iliad,  the  Odyssey.  To  the  pupil  there  is  no  repe- 
tition of  thought,  but,  if  the  discussions  have  been  kept  up, 
and  if  the  teacher  is  skillful  in  drawing  out  the  character- 
istics of  the  Greeks  that  led  to  these  expeditions,  at  the  end 
of  the  reading  the  pupil  will  have  a  knowledge  of  the  way 
in  which  the  Greeks  during  the  period  of  colonization  scat- 
tered their  life,  customs,  and  seeds  of  awakening  intelligence 
all  around  the  Black  Sea,  in  Asia  Minor,  in  Southern  Italy 
and  the  adjacent  islands.  It  is  a  knowledge  that  is  import- 


HISTORY   IN    GRAMMAR   GRADES 

ant  to  an  understanding  of  the  rousing  up  of  civilization  in 
Europe.  Sixth  grade  pupils  can  see  it  as  a  matter  of  course, 
in  a  child's  way  it  is  true,  but  the  fact  will  cling  to  their 
memories  if  it  is  well  impressed  by  stories  and  maps;  high 
school  pupils,  however,  often  finish  ancient  history  without 
a  thought  of  this  strong  connecting  link  between  ancient  and 
mediaeval  civilizations.  What  is  true  of  this  topic  is  equally 
true  of  many  others.  The  pupils  are  reading  stories  and 
enjoying  them,  but,  if  properly  guided,  they  are  also  laying 
an  excellent  foundation  for  later  serious  studies. 

Another  instance  of  this  cultural  training  may  be  found 
in  seventh  grade  reading  on  the  feudal  system  and  the 
Crusades.  From  well  selected  stories  pupils  can  gain  a  sur- 
prising amount  of  interesting  knowledge  concerning  the 
commercial,  political,  and  social  conditions  of  mediaeval  days, 
leading  to  a  fair  understanding  of  the  reasons  for  the  dis- 
covery of  America  and  for  the  revolt  against  Old  World 
customs  that  caused  the  establishment  of  our  freer  political 
institutions.  Such  readings  and  deductions  are  a  delightful 
part  of  grammar  grade  history.  No  attempt  should  be  made 
to  build  up  historical  structures,  but  the  foundation  laid  for 
those  of  later  years  should  be  firm  and  true.  During  all  this 
period  of  story  reading  the  pupils  will  scarcely  have  realized 
that  they  have  been  working.  Not  that  pupils  should  not 
work  knowingly,  but  they  will  be  learning  one  of  the  first 
important  lessons  in  the  acquisition  of  history,  that  work  in 
history  is  thoughtful  and  systematic  reading.  If,  then,  chil- 
dren are  learning  to  read  history  intelligently  and  with  pleas- 
ure, they  are  also  learning  to  work  happily. 

In  the  stories  of  Greece  and  Rome  the  pupils  are  now  old 
enough  to  distinguish  between  the  myth  and  the  germ  of 


3OO  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

truth  at  its  root,  and  they  can  see  how  the  myth  grew  up 
naturally  in  the  lives  of  these  beauty  loving,  inquisitive, 
primitive  people.  Consequently,  the  historical  myths  are 
more  interesting  here  than  in  the  lower  grades,  where  the 
little  children  can  not  differentiate  between  the  truth  and 
the  fancy  in  the  story.  The  life  and  development  of  both 
Greece  and  Rome  can  be  shown  by  a  comparatively  small 
number  of  stories,  grouped  around  centers  of  national 
growth  and  enlivened  by  accounts  of  men  and  events.  In- 
stitutions and  laws  belong  to  later  years. 

Methods  as  well  as  material  should  be  progressing  con- 
stantly.    That  which  fifth  grade  pupils  did  well  should  be 
the  basis  upon  which  the  sixth  grade  builds. 

E7™UtA01!,  The  teacher  should  know  what  the  children 

of  Methods 

were  able  to  do  in  any  given  exercise,  as 
outlining,  in  the  preceding  grade ;  she  should  try  them  to  see 
just  how  much  they  can  do  well,  and  then  advance  them 
certain  steps. 

The  fifth  grade  pupil  did  not  attempt  to  outline  beyond 
headings  for  paragraphs  in  separate,  comparatively  short 

stories,  with  a  few  indented  suggestions  for 
Outlining  ,.  . 

the  body  of  every  paragraph.     His  outlining 

was  preparatory  to  writing.  The  sixth  grade  pupil  will  con- 
tinue much  of  this  paragraph  outlining  as  an  assistance  to 
written  reproduction;  but  he  will  also  begin  to  outline  a 
subject  by  its  larger  heads.  In  the  fifth  grade  these  larger 
heads  have  been  given  by  the  teacher  as  the  subjects  to  be 
outlined,  because  the  judgment  and  analytical  powers  of  the 
children  were  still  too  immature  for  them  to  reason  beyond 
the  details.  Sixth  grade  pupils  will  not  go  far  beyond  that 
point,  but  they  can  take  a  subject  that  has  been  under  con- 


HISTORY  IN  GRAMMAR  GRADES  30 1 

sideration  for  several  days  and  give  the  most  prominent 
headings,  so  leading  out  towards  a  larger,  more  complete 
view  of  a  subject.  This  means  that  two  kinds  of  outlines 
are  being  carried  on  in  the  sixth  grade;  or,  more  properly, 
that  the  new  step  added  to  the  fifth  grade  outline  seems 
temporarily  like  a  new  kind  of  outline.  These  can  seldom 
be  worked  out  satisfactorily  on  the  same  day.  If  the  larger 
headings  for  a  complete  story  have  been  developed,  the 
teacher  will  find  that  the  minds  are  tired  by  this  stretching 
process,  as  it  really  is  to  the  children,  and  that  the  hour  would 
better  be  filled  out  with  some  interesting  narrative.  The  fol- 
lowing day  one  of  the  headings  from  this  complete  outline. 
can  be  treated  in  detailed,  or  paragraph  outline.  This  will 
be  far  easier  work  than  that  of  the  preceding  day.  In  de- 
veloping the  outline  the  reading  from  various  books  should 
be  put  together ;  this  will  have  its  special  difficulties  of  amal- 
gamation, usually  confusing  to  children,  who  do  not  compre- 
hend at  first  how  to  combine  thoughts  from  several  authors. 
The  minds  are  still  young. 

It  is  good  practice  occasionally  to  write  an  outline  on  the 
board  just  as  it  is  given  by  the  class,  and  then  to  rearrange  it 
for  continuity  of  thought.  In  an  outline  of  any  length  there 
will  be  much  to  do,  and  a  great  deal  of  guidance  will  be 
necessary.  There  are  two  reasons  why  continuous  thought 
comes  slowly :  we  are  all  prone  to  forgetfulness,  leaving  out 
something  that  we  know  full  well  belongs  in  the  develop- 
ment, and  putting  it  in  when  we  think  of  it,  out  of  its  place, 
of  course;  continuity  of  thought  is  a  power  of  maturity, 
whose  fullness  can  not  be  expected  from  these  children.  It 
is  being  cultivated,  but  its  growth  can  not  be  forced,  it 
must  be  developed  through  careful,  intelligent  use. 


3O2  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

The  outline  may  or  may  not  be  left  before  the  pupils  dur- 
ing the  written  reproductions.  If  the  story  is  long,  requiring 
several  days  for  writing,  the  outline  will  be  a  great  aid,  and 
results  will  be  better.  If  the  memory  is  to  be  trained,  the 
prop  should  be  taken  away  by  erasing  the  outline.  Memory 
is  a  useful  servant,  but  other  faculties  are  of  equal  or  greater 
importance  of  life  work. 

If  the  topic  for  writing  is  assigned  occasionally  a  day  or 
two  in  advance,  the  pupils  have  a  chance  to  think  over  what 
they  wish  to  say  and  how  best  to  say  it. 
Careful  workers  soon  learn  to  take  advan- 
tage of  the  opportunity  to  look  up  the  spelling  of  new  words, 
to  think  out  a  satisfactory  outline,  and  to  prepare  in  many 
ways.  The  results  are  naturally  better  than  when  the  efforts 
are  extemporaneous.  This  kind  of  preparation  also  tends 
to  cultivate  a  habit  of  self-examination  concerning  readiness 
for  a  task,  a  habit  of  incalculable  importance  in  the  produc- 
tion of  satisfactory  work  and  in  the  formation  of  character. 
Still  more  ambitious  papers  may  be  written  by  giving  the 
pupils  a  week  to  prepare  on  either  an  assigned  topic  or  on 
one  chosen  by  the  writer.  Reading  from  reference  books 
then  becomes  possible,  and  actual  research  in  history  is  be- 
ginning. The  reading  references  should  be  suggested  by 
the  teacher,  so  that  too  difficult  tasks  are  not  left  to  untrained 
minds.  Selection  of  material  is  one  of  the  most  involved 
steps  in  the  preparation  of  a  paper. 

There  are  the  usual  accessories  of  maps,  illustrations, 
reference  books.  The  maps  are  for  fixing 

^lass  the  larger  features;  the  less  important  ones 

Accessories 

become    known    through    repetition.      The 

illustrations   that   are   now   used   often   have   considerable 


HISTORY  IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES  303 

value.  These  should  be  exposed  somewhere  in  sight  of  the 
pupils  so  that  they  become  a  part  of  their  germinating  artis- 
tic and  intellectual  life.  Reference  books  should  be  fur- 
nished every  school ;  they  may  be  drawn  from  public  librar- 
ies; sometimes  they  are  willingly  loaned  for  careful  use  by 
private  owners.  Reading  is  to  history  what  plants  and  ani- 
mals are  to  nature  study,  the  material  with  which  to  work. 
Reading  is  a  necessity. 

From  the  sixth  grade  on  throughout  life  as  a  student,  note 
taking  and  the  notebook  have  dignity  and  importance.     In 
the  book  are  collected  all  papers  of  value, 
B°  k  separate  sheets  that  are  preserved  as  writ- 

ten. The  best  form  of  notebook  that  has 
been  evolved  from  our  work  is  the  one  composed  of  separate 
sheets,  comprising  work  of  all  kinds  connected  with  the 
study,  fastened  together  in  a  folder  or  a  homemade  cover  of 
pasteboard.  Paper  fasteners  are  not  satisfactory  for  hold- 
ing the  leaves  together  as  they  do  not  permit  the  book  to 
open  freely  enough.  A  string  holds  the  sheets  safely  and 
allows  ease  in  turning. 

The  time  given  to  history  during  the  year  is  twenty  weeks, 

in  two  periods  of  ten  weeks  each,  alternating  with  literature 

periods    of    the    same    length.      The    daily 

allotment    of    time    is    forty-five    minutes, 

twenty  for  study,  twenty-five  for  recitation. 

The  following  thoughts  are  from  a  sixth  grade  teacher1 : 
For  the  history  of  primitive  man  Ragozin's   "  Earliest 
Peoples  "  is  used.     The  book  is  too  difficult 
to  be  put  into  the  hands  of  the  pupils  for  un- 
aided reading  and  study,  so  it  is  read  aloud 
by  the  teacher.     Discussions  and  reproductions  by  the  class 

'Miss  Charlotte  Treanor. 


3O4  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

follow.  By  this  means  there  is  gained  an  introductory 
knowledge  of  the  world  before  the  age  of  Greek  civilization. 
Attention  is  called  to  the  westward  movement  in  the  life  of 
the  world,  and  this  tendency  is  referred  to  frequently 
throughout  the  term.  The  stories  of  Kablu,  Darius,  and 
Cleon  are  read  from  "  Ten  Boys."  A  time  line  is  begun  and 
continued  during  the  term.  A  cross  in  the  middle  indicates 
the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era ;  time  before  Christ  is  put 
at  the  left,  and  time  after  Christ  at  the  right  of  the  cross. 

Early  Greek  history  is  studied  through  stories  of  the  gods, 
many  beautiful  myths  showing  the  childlike  attempts  of  the 

Greeks  to  explain  the  phenomena  of  nature. 
Greece 

While   reading  about   the  heroes   and  the 

period  of  the  Trojan  War,  fully  two-thirds  of  the  class  have 
read  large  parts  of  the  "  Iliad  "  and  the  "  Odyssey  "  in  the 
children's  editions  in  the  room.  A  comparison  of  Sparta 
and  Athens  is  made  through  stories  of  the  life  and  training 
of  the  people  in  the  two  cities.  The  next  age  is  best  told  by 
the  lives  of  some  of  the  great  men;  as,  Pericles,  Socrates, 
Demosthenes,  and  Alexander.  Pictures  are  an  important 
source  of  information,  study,  and  pleasure.  A  brief  glance 
is  given  to  the  overthrow  of  Greece  by  the  rising  power  of 
Rome. 

Through  selected  stories  the  children  learn  to  see  the 
Romans  as  an  energetic,  industrious  race,  fond  of  conquest, 

intensely  patriotic;  training  the  young  men 
Rome  .. 

carefully  in  the  art  of  war,  and  according 

great  honors  to  successful  warriors.  "  Horatius,"  studie< 
and  partially  learned  in  the  second  grade,  proves  an  inter- 
esting foundation  for  some  of  the  conquests  made  by  th< 
early  Romans.  Some  rays  of  light  are  thrown  on  the  lonj 


HISTORY  IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES 

and  bitter  struggle  between  the  patricians  and  the  plebeians 
by  a  few  of  the  most  stirring  tales  of  those  days.  There  are 
pictures  and  descriptions  of  the  temples,  theaters,  aqueducts ; 
the  military  roads  are  admired  by  the  pupils,  who  receive 
through  them  some  idea  of  the  necessity  of  marching  armies 
quickly  from  one  part  of  the  Empire  to  the  other.  Greek 
influence  is  noted  in  the  artistic  life  of  the  people.  Chariot 
racing  is  made  more  vivid  by  reading  the  chariot  race  in 
"  Ben  Hur."  The  war  with  Carthage  is  intensely  interest- 
ing, and  keen  sympathy  is  aroused  for  the  conquered  city. 
Augustus  Caesar  is  presented  as  one  of  the  best  emperors. 
Nero  is  selected  as  a  contrasting  type,  with  his  cruel  perse- 
cutions of  the  Christians.  For  many  centuries  the  power  of 
Rome  weakened.  The  children  read  with  interest  stories  of 
the  barbarians  who  swept  down  upon  Rome  from  the  north, 
terrifying  the  Empire,  and  finally  subverting  the  conditions 
of  Roman  life. 

This  is  but  a  meagre  outline  of  the  work  given.  Every- 
where it  is  presented  through  stories,  whose  meanings  are 
often  seen  by  the  children  without  help.  Connecting  links 
between  periods  must  be  supplied  by  the  teacher,  but  these 
are  given  in  a  few  words  that  are  made  more  comprehensible 
by  keeping  the  trend  of  events  in  every  period  before  the 
minds  of  the  pupils. 

A  large  map  of  the  country  being  studied  is  drawn  upon 
the  board,  and  important  places  are  located  as  they  come  up 
in  the  recitations.  This  map  is  made  per- 
manent for  the  term  by  being  outlined  in 
thin  white  paint.  The  places  are  located  temporarily  in 
chalk,  so  that  the  day's  lesson  may  be  erased  if  desired  with- 
out destroying  the  outline.  In  a  short  time  the  principal 
21 


306  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

rivers,  lakes,  bays,  mountains,  cities,  and  provinces  are 
quickly  and  accurately  located  whenever  mentioned.  At  the 
end  of  the  term  the  painted  outline  can  be  removed  easily 
from  the  board. 

SEVENTH  YEAR  GRADE 

In  the  seventh  grade  the  subject  for  the  year  is  American 
history.  This  is  introduced  by  stories  of  the  Crusades, 
selected  and  prepared  for  the  classes  so  as 
Introduction  to  show  the  restlessness  of  the  Middle  Ages 
History  anc^  t^le  knowledge  of  the  world  that  was 

gradually  leading  men  out  of  their  own 
home  countries  into  distant  lands.  The  pupils  thus  see  how 
the  Europeans  came  into  contact  with  the  higher  civilization 
of  the  older  countries  of  the  East,  imbibing  many  of  the 
luxurious  tastes  there  prevalent.  To  supply  the  commodi- 
ties demanded  by  these  new  tastes  long  and  difficult  com- 
mercial voyages  were  undertaken,  well  suited  to  adventurous 
spirits  that  still  held  back  from  the  more  settled,  monotonous 
habits  of  industrial  life. 

All  the  time  desired  can  not  be  given  this  period  of 
awakening  in  Europe,  so  fitting  an  introduction  to  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  for  it  is  also  desirable  to  familiarize  the 
pupils  somewhat  more  specially  with  life  and  conditions  in 
England  just  before  the  voyages  of  discovery  and  the  begin- 
nings of  settlements  in  America.  For  this  purpose  a  text  is 
used.  The  whole  book  can  not  be  read  and  discussed  in 
class,  and  it  is  not  desirable  that  it  should  be ;  but  selections 
are  made  of  stories  illustrative  of  the  periods  most  closely 
connected  with  American  history.  Many  pupils  read  the 
entire  book  for  themselves. 


HISTORY   IN    GRAMMAR   GRADES  3O/ 

After  a  rather  too  brief  introduction  of  this  sort,  when  its 
importance  in  our  history  is  considered,  the  regular  study  of 
American  history  is  begun.     In  addition  to 
*1  t^ie  text  Purc^ase(^  by  the  pupil,  three  other 


authors  are  kept  in  sets  in  every  seventh 
grade  room,  so  that  every  pupil  has  four  books  to  which  he 
can  refer  in  preparing  his  lessons.  The  use  of  the  city 
library  by  the  pupils  broadens  and  strengthens  in  every 
grade.  This  is  a  fact  of  importance  and  magnitude.  The 
children  should  not  be  simply  turned  loose  in  a  library, 
to  select  anything  that  suits  them;  they  are  not  yet  old 
enough  to  be  discriminating,  nor  will  they  be  for  several 
years  to  come.  Neither  is  it  ordinarily  satisfactory  to  leave 
them  to  the  guidance  of  librarians,  unless  there  is  a  juvenile 
room  in  charge  of  a  capable,  sympathetic  person.  No  one 
can  know  so  well  as  the  teacher  just  what  topics  and  what 
phases  of  them  are  to  be  discussed  and  emphasized  in  the 
class.  That  the  teacher  keep  in  close  touch  with  the  reading 
becomes  of  more  importance  constantly  as  the  pupils  and 
the  study  become  more  mature.  This  is  the  source  of 
supply,  the  subject  matter,  the  red  blood  from  which  is  to 
come  the  live  tissue  of  the  body  of  knowledge  that  is  to 
be  built  up.  If  the  library  is  large  and  if  the  teacher  is  very 
busy,  and  what  conscientious  teacher  is  not?  it  may  follow 
that  the  library  is  not  thoroughly  canvassed  for  a  year  or 
two;  but  when  this  has  once  been  done  and  the  teacher 
knows  just  what  books  are  applicable  to  her  class  work,  it 
is  not  difficult  to  keep  track  of  the  new  books  that  are  added 
to  the  library.  By  putting  the  information  about  all  these 
books  into  the  topically  arranged  card  catalogue  of  accessi- 
ble books  for  the  class,  which  should  be  a  part  of  the  outfit 


3O8  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

of  every  teacher,  the  great  problem  of  supplementary  read- 
ing is  reduced  to  system,  and  ceases  to  be  a  constantly  re- 
curring bugbear.  The  teacher  and  the  librarian  should 
work  together  for  the  good  of  the  schools.  It  is  a  most 
efficient  aid  in  the  use  of  books,  and  it  is  eventually  for  the 
best  good  both  of  the  public  and  of  the  library. 

In  the  seventh  grade  the  time  for  history  is  doubled;  it 
becomes  forty-five  minutes  a  day  for  the  year,  instead  of  for 

five   months,   as   in   the   preceding   grades. 

Twenty  minutes  are  usually  taken  for  prepa- 
ration, twenty-five  for  recitation. 

Pupils  should  be  growing  more  independent  in  prepara- 
tion, although  the  proportion  indicated  above  of  study  time 

to  recitation  time  shows  that  the  influence 
Preparation  of  the  teacher  in  guiding  is  still  considered 

Recitation  preponderant  over  the  discrimination  powers 

of  the  child  in  choosing  for  himself.  Reci- 
tations must  include  time  for  careful  suggestions  about  read- 
ing and  methods  of  work.  The  value  of  definite  assign- 
ments can  not  be  over  estimated,  but  a  failure  to  make  clear 
just  what  is  to  be  done  and  how  it  is  to  be  done  is  one  of  the 
most  frequent  weaknesses  of  teachers.  The  lesson  should 
rarely,  perhaps  never,  be  assigned  as  so  many  pages. 
Topics,  even  if  only  the  paragraph  headings,  should  be 
plainly  dictated.  The  alert  teacher,  however,  will  seldom 
be  satisfied  to  use  these  summaries  as  topics  for  the  lesson. 
More  personal  topics  will  be  chosen,  something  that  can  be 
made  more  a  part  of  the  class  life  than  the  headings  from 
any  book,  no  matter  how  scholarly.  They  will  be  such  as 
the  teacher  will  select,  through  a  knowledge  of  the  class,  as 
necessary  to  the  promotion  of  some  undeveloped  thought  in 


HISTORY   IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES  3OQ 

the  recitations,  or  those  that  are  most  accessible  in  the  refer- 
ence books,  or  that  lead  directly  into  future  studies.  In 
short,  here  as  everywhere,  there  should  be  that  class  person- 
ality without  which  all  teaching  palls.  The  topics  are  placed 
upon  the  board;  pupils  are  expected  to  prepare  themselves 
thoroughly  either  from  the  class  text  or  from  that  and  the 
reference  books.  This  may  be  the  material  for  the  first 
day's  recitation.  The  next  day,  after  this  preparatory  sys- 
tematizing of  the  topics,  broader  reference  reading  may 
come,  perhaps  for  individual  reports  from  different  books, 
or  as  reading  by  all  the  class  on  some  special  phase  of  the 
lesson  from  any  supplementary  author.  The  latter  method 
is  usually  preferred,  for  reproductions  from  individual  read- 
ings tend  toward  dry  resumes,  appreciated  by  few,  no  mat- 
ter how  conscientious  the  child  who  makes  the  report.  This 
method  is  more  practicable  with  older  students.  The  second 
manner  of  preparation,  all  looking  up  the  same  topic  but 
from  various  books,  is  more  liable  to  bring  out  discussions, 
comparison  of  opinions,  expressions  of  differing  ideas,  all  of 
which  result  in  live,  vigorous  class  work.  The  larger  the 
number  actively  interested  in  a  recitation,  really  taking  part 
in  furnishing  details,  or  in  presenting  ideas  for  the  discus- 
sion, the  greater  will  be  the  life  and  energy  of  the  recitation. 
On  some  days,  careful,  thorough  reproduction  of  the  text 
that  has  been  read  is  excellent  drill.  Pupils  do  what  they 
are  directed  to  do;  they  have  a  natural  tendency  to  neglect 
what  is  not  required.  Consequently,  in  leading  a  class  out 
into  discussions,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  permit  a  neglect 
of  restating  exactly  the  author's  opinion.  The  teacher 
should  call  frequently,  every  day  perhaps,  for  an  exact 
rendering  of  what  Fiske,  Montgomery,  or  any  other  author 


3IO  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

used  in  the  preparation,  says  in  regard  to  any  point  in  the 
lesson.  Sometimes  a  reproduction  of  the  whole  lesson, 
topic  by  topic,  should  be  called  for.  Two  ends  are  gained 
by  this  kind  of  a  recitation,  formal  as  it  may  seem  at  first 
glance.  The  pupils  are  led  to  notice  more  carefully  what 
they  are  reading,  and,  gradually,  to  form  the  habit  of  pictur- 
ing mentally  the  thoughts  of  an  author,  a  most  important 
power;  secondly,  the  memory  is  steadily  developed,  and  this 
is  a  servant  too  useful  to  be  left  untrained.  Every  recitation 
can  be  made  to  vary  in  some  respect  from  those  immediately 
preceding,  so  that  monotony  of  presentation,  that  deadly 
enemy  of  enjoyable  class  work,  does  not  lay  hold  of  the 
pupils. 

Another  feature  of  the  instruction  that  is  beginning  to 
take  shape  is  the  presentation  by  the  teacher  of  definite  sup- 
plementary knowledge.     While  this  is  never 
Talks  bv 

*v    T     t,  so   formal    as   to   deserve   the   name   of   a 

the  Teacher 

"  lecture,"  it  partakes  of  that  nature.  From 
books  that  are  inaccessible  to  the  children  or  that  are  too 
difficult  for  them  to  assimilate  in  undiluted  form,  the  teacher 
collects  points  of  interest  and  importance.  When  these  are 
given  in  sufficient  abundance  to  warrant  note  taking,  the 
pupils  should  be  asked  to  keep  track  of  what  has  been  told 
them,  incorporating  it  in  some  shape  in  their  notebooks. 
Like  outlining,  this  method  is  easily  abused,  for  children 
never  like  taking  many  notes;  but  if  the  insistence  of  the 
teacher  on  taking  the  notes  is  in  a  spirit  of  helpfulness,  and 
if  the  children  are  led  to  use  the  material  in  some  way,  and 
to  appreciate  the  assistance  furnished  by  their  notes  in 
writing  or  reciting,  the  majority  of  the  pupils  respond 


HISTORY   IN   GRAMMAR   GRADES 

quickly  and  happily,  and  the  talks  by  the  teacher  have  an 
added  force. 

Outlines  continue,  still  largely  as  composites,  produced  by 
all  the  pupils  working  together,  guided  by  the  teacher ;  some 

original   efforts  are  made,  and  with  very 
Outlines 

good  results  if  the  work  can  be  analyzed  in 

a  manner  already  familiar  to  the  children.  The  reasons  for 
not  leaving  the  children  to  their  own  devices  are  the  same 
as  in  previous  years.  The  powers  of  analyzing,  judging, 
selecting,  and  systematizing  material,  upon  which  the  value 
of  an  outline  depends,  are  still  immature.  They  are  not  be- 
ing used  so  much  as  being  trained,  developed,  through  all 
these  years,  preparatory  for  later  actual  use.  Consequently, 
the  work  should  never  be  very  difficult  nor  should  it  be  left 
without  supervision.  It  is  like  developing  a  muscle;  there 
must  be  wise  oversight  or  there  may  result  injury  rather  than 
education. 

The  notebook  may  add  greatly  to  the  pleasure  of  the 
class,  and  every  pupil  should  be  encouraged  to  put  together 
one  of  which  he  will  be  proud  at  the  end  of 
the  year.    -These  books  are  not  to  be  left  in 
desuetude  under  the  desks,  simply  kept  as 
receptacles  for  the  papers  of  the  term;  they  are  for  use; 
they  are  practical,  indispensable  aids.    On  certain  days  there 
are  reviews  of  the  month's  work,  based  on  the  indexes  of 
certain  notebooks.     This  brings  out  friendly  comparison  of 
the  number  of  papers  and  of  pages  written  and  preserved; 
of  the  notes  taken  from  the  teacher's  talks  and  from  supple- 
mentary reading ;  of  the  maps  made ;  of  the  drawings  by  the 
pupils  themselves;  of  the  pictures  collected.     Some  of  the 
papers  are  read,  a  map  is  reproduced  on  the  board,  or  an 


312  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

especially  original  outline  is  read,  discussed,  or  recited  upon. 
The  notebooks  are  used  as  a  partial  proof  of  scholarship,  of 
ability  to  pass  the  subject.  The  books  sometimes  go  home 
for  the  approval  of  the  parents  before  the  end  of  the  term, 
so  that  the  stimulus  thus  obtained  may  come  back  into  the 
class. 

It  is  possible  that  the  English  history  may  have  been 
given  in  a  fragmentary  manner  throughout  the  year,  fitted 

into  the  periods  of  American  history  so  as 
Summaries 

to  illuminate  the  relations  between,  the  two 

countries.  When  this  is  the  case  the  detached  lessons  are 
put  together  towards  the  end  of  the  year  under  the  general 
headings  of  their  particular  periods ;  the  Tudors  and  the  era 
of  explorations  and  early  settlements;  the  Stuarts  and  the 
religious  changes  in  England,  leading  to  heavy  emigration 
to  America ;  the  Georges  and  the  Revolution. 

To  fix  the  history  from  the  period  of  explorations  through 
the  Revolution,  a  topical  review  of  two  or  three  weeks  is 
admirable  exercise.  The  geography  must  be  kept  well  in 
mind.  The  broad  principles  in  the  whole  period  are  brought 
out  for  the  headings  of  the  smaller  divisions ;  the  relation  of 
period  to  period  is  shown;  the  causes  and  results  of  events 
are  analyzed ;  the  children  are  led  to  generalize,  to  compare, 
to  judge,  as  far  as  their  powers  will  permit  them  to  go.  In 
a  review  of  this  nature  details  are  not  dwelt  upon  except  to 
prevent  the  recitations  from  becoming  dry  and  monotonous 
or  to  refresh  facts;  they  are  used  constantly,  however,  as 
accumulated  material  which  is  for  the  purpose  of  forming 
broader  views  and  for  grasping  the  sure,  uninterrupted 
movement  of  a  nation.  The  details  have  been  studied  and 
gained  through  the  preceding  months,  but  the  children 


HISTORY  IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES  313 

should  leave  no  important  period  without  also  seeing  that 
these  details  are  not  the  end  for  which  we  are  studying,  but 
that  they  make  it  possible  to  see  the  real  meaning  of  the  life 
of  the  nation,  just  as  flying  scraps  of  paper  tell  the  direction 

of  the  wind. 

EIGHTH  YEAR  GRADE 

The  administrative  period,  from  the  Revolution  to  the 
present  time,  and  the  history  of  California  form  the  subject 

matter  for  the  history  of  the  eighth  grade. 
Time  ^,  .  ££.  .  , 

Material  e   £lven    1S   ""v   mmutes    a     day 

throughout  the  year.  Half  of  the  period 
is  used  by  the  pupils  for  preparation.  According  to  the 
state  law  no  study  out  of  school  can  be  required  by  the 
teacher,  but  many  interested  pupils  read  at  the  public  library, 
or  take  school  books  home  with  them  for  the  evening,  through 
their  own  desire  to  know  more  about  the  periods  studied. 

This  part  of  the  history  of  our  country  has  many  difficul- 
ties for  grammar  grade  pupils,  for  its  development  is  along 

the  lines  of  mature  growth,  it  is  the  complex 
Matter  history  of  modern  times,  and  care  must  be 

taken  that  it  is  not  overwhelming  to  the  chil- 
dren. There  are  many  topics  that  are  important  and  inter- 
esting without  going  into  the  vagaries  of  the  currency,  the 
intricacies  of  the  tariff,  or  the  vacillations  of  political  parties. 
Such  are  the  questions  of  transportation;  the  opening  of 
new  roads ;  the  conditions  of  the  negroes ;  the  attitude  of  the 
North  and  the  South  toward  the  freedmen;  immigration, 
and  the  settlement  of  great  stretches  of  our  country  through 
the  influx  of  foreigners ;  the  reasons  for  the  development  of 
certain  states,  as  California,  because  of  its  mines,  grain  pro- 
duction, fruit  raising,  stock  raising,  climate ;  Kansas,  because 


314  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

of  the  opening  of  its  land  to  soldiers  after  the  Civil  War,  and 
the  vast  areas  there  ready  for  the  plow ;  the  Northwest,  with 
its  seemingly  inexhaustible  wheat  acreage  and  pasture  land, 
and  its  vast  wealth  in  mining.  Such  questions  are  of  far 
greater  value  to  the  children  and  they  are  more  intelligible 
than  are  the  majority  of  governmental  and  political  topics. 
Unfortunately,  reading  matter  on  them  is  less  accessible, 
and  it  is  rarely  written  for  children;  but  if  the  teacher  and 
pupils  are  working  together  for  the  accumulation  of  mater- 
ial, wonders  can  be  accomplished.  At  least,  the  emphasis  of 
the  preparation  and  the  recitation  can  be  laid  upon  those 
topics  that  are  nearest  the  pupils,  while  those  that  are  so 
difficult  as  to  be  studies  even  for  the  teacher  can  be  passed 
over  lightly  enough  to  prevent  the  pupil  abominating  forever 
afterwards  the  very  name  of  tariff,  finance,  presidential  elec- 
tion. In  our  zeal  to  prepare  the  children  for  statesmanship, 
we  are  prone  to  overlook  the  fact  that  they  must  first  be 
citizens.  Citizenship  is  far  simpler  than  statesmanship,  it  is 
nearer  the  individual  life,  it  must  touch  every  one. 

In  the  preparation  of  his  lesson  the  eighth  grade  pupil 
naturally  uses  the  methods  of  the  preceding  grade,  even 

while  he  is  being  led  out  into  broader  uses 
Preparation  . 

of  his  maturing  powers.  The  supple- 
mentary texts  and  the  regular  class  text  are  first  used,  as  a 
sort  of  summary  on  the  assigned  topics.  Then  the  pupil 
turns  to  the  public  library,  the  home  collection  of  books, 
periodicals,  and  papers. 

The  recitation  follows  the  general  lines  of  that  of  the 

seventh  grade.  Frequent  discussions  involve 
Recitation 

the  majority  of  the  pupils  and  have  more 

life  than  set  reproductions.     Searching  quizzes  and  short, 


HISTORY  IN   GRAMMAR  GRADES  3  IS 

accurate  reproductions  occur  at  any  time,  so  that  prepara- 
tion for  them  will  never  be  neglected  by  the  pupils.  An 
eighth  grade  teacher1  says :  "  An  effort  is  made  to  lead  the 
pupil  to  talk  from  a  topic  and  to  know  when  he  has  ex- 
hausted his  subject.  He  is  encouraged  to  think  and  to  give 
his  own  opinions.  Before  such  a  topic  is  assigned  to  an 
individual,  the  class  is  usually  led  to  think  about  it,  so  that 
all  are  interested  in  the  treatment.  In  this  way  pupils  reason 
out  many  points,  without  the  aid  of  books.  When  conclu- 
sions have  been  reached  individual  presentation  is  called  for 
in  order  to  clarify  ideas.  Sometimes  a  general  talk  of  this 
nature  precedes  the  studying  of  the  lesson,  leading  the  pupil 
to  think  and  reason  while  studying.  Library  reading  is 
done  on  many  topics." 
1Miss  Belle  Mitchell. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

CIVICS 

The   state   supports   the   schools.     The   schools   are   the 
avowed  training  centers  for  citizens  of  our  republic.     Conse- 
quently, in  return  for  the  money  lavished 
Importance 

upon  the  schools,  the  state  should  be  given 

citizens  with  a  high  degree  of  civic  pride  and  honor,  pre- 
pared to  render  willing  support,  and  possessed  of  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  possibilities  and  limitations  of  citizens. 

It  is  true  that  the  family  is,  and  always  must  be,  the  strong- 
est influence  in  character  training.     The  school  can  only 

supplement  the  efforts  of  the  home ;  but  the 
Institutional 
Sense  school  may  be  a  better  instructor  than  the 

home  in  general  information  concerning  the 
duties  of  citizens.  To  be  thoroughly  a  part  of  a  man's  life, 
the  conception  of  honest,  unselfish  citizenship  must  be  com- 
menced with  the  child.  His  understanding  and  appreciation 
of  the  institutional  side  of  his  own  character  and  of  its 
necessity  in  a  well  balanced  life  must  be  educated  in  his  child- 
hood. Many  growing  children  are  prone  to  cast  off  allegi- 
ance to  any  person  or  institution  simply  from  the  belief  that 
it  is  a  sign  of  strength  to  do  so;  but,  if  shown  that  such 
allegiance  is  courage,  loyalty,  patriotism,  that  it  appeals  to 
the  best  and  bravest  in  man,  it  may  be  embraced  with  an 
affection  that  long  years  of  worldly  struggle  can  not  weaken. 
The  object  of  the  course  in  civics  is  to  purify  and  render 
intelligible  the  child's  institutional  sense,  and  to  direct  it 


civics  317 

toward  its  legitimate  objects  of  loyalty.  The  first  steps  in 
this  training  are  to  make  clear  to  a  child  the  nature  of  those 
institutions  nearest  to  his  life,  as  the  home, 

the  school>  the  neighborhood-  These  are 
broadened  later  to  the  town,  the  state,  the 
nation.  There  is  thus  trained  that  part  of  the  child's  na- 
ture that  finds  expression  in  patriotism  toward  home  insti- 
tutions and  in  allegiance  to  constitutional  government  any- 
where. This  training  has  its  foundation  in  character ;  hence, 
whatever  elevation  can  be  given  to  the  character  of  a  pupil 
is  sure  to  be  reflected  in  his  citizenship. 

Instruction  in  civics  accompanies  history,  and,  in  all  grades 
to  the  eighth,  the  recitation  time  is  taken  from  the  daily 
period  for  history.  No  set  time  is  arranged 
on  the  daily  program,  but  it  is  expected 
that  every  week  or  ten  days  there  will  be  careful  work  on 
some  topic  in  civics.  If  two  lessons  are  closely  related  they 
are  taken  on  consecutive  days.  No  regularly  assigned  work 
has  as  yet  been  followed  in  our  schools,  but  every  teacher 
selects  from  the  summaries  the  material  most  suitable  for 
her  class,  and  comparison  of  work  done  in  different  grades 
prevents  repetition  of  topics. 

PRIMARY   GRADES 

Cultivate  a  spirit  of  social  responsibility,  of  interest  in  and 
for  companions.     Man  is  a  social  animal,  he  must  live  in 
company  with  his  fellow-men.     He  should 
realize,  therefore,  the  benefits  and  responsi- 
bilities  arising   from    such   relations.     The 
school  is  an  excellent  place  for  starting  the  education  of  this 
idea   with   children.     Relations   with   others  begin   in   the 


3l8  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

family.  Discuss  the  family  and  the  home  with  the  little 
ones.  Do  more  than  talk  to  them;  lead  them  into  thinking 
and  expressing  their  own  ideas,  so  doing  much  of  the  talking 
themselves. 

The  family :  Formed  of  whom  ?  children  must  be  loved 
and  cared  for;  children  should  have  consideration  for 
parents  and  an  understanding  of  some  of 
Family  ^e  ^ur<^ens  an(^  responsibilities  of  parents; 

responsibilities  should  rest  upon  every  mem- 
ber of  the  family ;  children  need  some  fixed  tasks  in  order  to 
help  and  also  to  learn  how  to  work;  interdependence  of 
members  of  a  family. 

Authority  in  the  family :  Its  necessity,  seen  in  the  need  of 
constant  care  for  infants,  of  long  continued  training  for  chil- 
dren, and  in  the  great  number  of  things  that  there  are  for 
children  to  learn  before  being  ready  to  go  out  into  the  world ; 
necessity  for  punishment  after  wrong  doing,  its  nature; 
parents  the  center  of  all  authority;  older  children,  if  they 
are  reliable,  grow  into  a  share  in  the  parental  authority ;  the 
honor  to  the  child  who  shares  this  responsibility ;  the  respon- 
sibility attached  to  it;  the  necessity  for  all  children  to  learn 
how  to  govern  themselves  and  how  to  help  govern  others. 

Ownership:  Individual,  as  in  marbles  belonging  to  one 
boy;  common,  as  in  a  swing  for  the  pleasure  of  all  the  chil- 
dren ;  care  of  property ;  accumulation  of  individual  property 
and  its  relation  to  the  good  of  all;  increasing  the  scope  of 
common  property,  and  its  relation  to  the  individual. 

Bonds  of  union:  Mutual  interests;  its  effectiveness  in 
training  for  the  future ;  personal  affection,  the  strongest  bond 
in  the  life  of  many  people  in  home  life,  patriotism,  religion. 

Early  in  the  school  year  discuss  with  the  children  the 


civics  3 i 9 

great  change  that  has  come  to  them  by  entering  school. 

This  may  precede  the  discussions  on  the  family  as  it  ought 

to  help  fit  the  little  ones  into  their  new  en- 

f|*T|» 

*  vironments ;  but  after  the  talks  on  the  home 

the  school  should  be  reconsidered,  so  that 
the  pupils  fit  it  into  their  conception  of  the  enlarging  circle 
of  their  social  relations.  Interest  in  and  for  others  is  the 
true  basis  of  social  relations.  See  that  the  children  live 
socially,  that  they  play,  work,  chat,  with  others.  Theory 
without  practice  is  like  looking  at  the  apparatus  of  a  gym- 
nasium without  being  trained  by  its  use.  Notice  difficulties 
that  arise  in  adjusting  games  or  schoolroom  routine,  and, 
without  making  direct  application  to  the  occurrences,  dis- 
cuss with  the  children  the  reasons  for  such  disagreements, 
the  rights  involved,  the  possible  injustice  to  some,  and  the 
means  of  settlement.  There  will  be  a  response  to  good 
government  and  also  an  education  toward  an  intelligent  par- 
ticipation in  it.  In  many  cases,  where  absolute  authority  is 
not  required,  it  is  safe  to  allow  the  pupils  to  discuss  and  vote 
on  the  method  of  procedure,  and  so  the  children  are  learning 
to  obey  the  will  of  the  majority.  Cheerfulness  in  such  obedi- 
ence should  be  inculcated. 

Some  of  the  rules  for  the  schoolroom  may  be  made  more 
effective  if  the  necessity  for  them  is  clearly  understood  by 
the  pupils.  Two  broad  divisions  of  rules 
and  laws  are  readily  seen, — rules  for  re- 
Laws  straining  and  rules  for  direction  or  progress, 

The  need  for  both  is  quickly  recognized. 
The  children  develop  for  themselves  that  the  rules  for  re- 
straining are  for  the  few,  that  those  for  guidance  are  for  the 
many.  They  realize  that  there  are  comparatively  few  chil- 


32O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

dren  in  the  room  who  are  so  lawless  that  they  must  be  re- 
strained by  rules  and  regulations,  for  it  is  noticeable  that  in 
every  class  there  are  few  evil-disposed  pupils  in  proportion 
to  the  whole  number;  but  they  also  reason  out  very  easily 
that  two  or  three  noisy,  quarrelsome,  or  disobedient  pupils 
quickly  disturb  the  peace  and  happiness  of  the  whole  class. 
Hence  the  need  of  restraint.  Rules  for  direction,  for  train- 
ing, whether  in  book  learning  or  in  conduct,  are  for  the 
many ;  they  are  for  progress,  and  all  wish  to  advance.  Some 
need  more  training  than  others;  consequently,  such  rules 
may  have  to  remain  in  effect  longer  for  some  pupils  than  for 
others.  These  thoughts,  simplified  for  childish  minds,  made 
concrete  by  schoolroom  examples,  talked  over  in  friendly, 
cooperative  manner,  prove  remarkably  helpful  in  fitting  the 
individual  into  the  social  and  governmental  relations  of 
school  life,  in  arousing  a  desire  for  every  one  to  control  him- 
self by  responding  to  conditions,  and  in  direct  preparation 
for  self  government. 

The  children  in  the  first  two  grades  are  too  immature  to 
be  interested  in  the  city  government,  but  they  take  pleasure 
in  learning  the  names  of  some  of  the  public 
Officials  officials  nearest  to  their  lives.     In  talking 

over  the  school  system,  for  example,  it  is 
easy  to  pass  from  the  class  teacher  to  the  principal  of  the 
building,  then  to  the  superintendent  of  schools.  It  is  even 
of  importance  to  give  names  accurately,  writing  them  upon 
the  board  when  not  well  understood.  The  duties  of  the 
teacher,  principal,  superintendent,  can  be  talked  over  briefly, 
so  that  the  children  begin  to  see  the  interdependence  of  the 
parts  in  a  large  system  and  their  relation  to  the  well-being 
of  the  whole.  The  mail  service  is  traced  out  briefly  from 


civics  321 

writing  a  letter  to  its  being  sent  out  of  the  city;  and  vice 
versa,  from  mail  coming  into  the  city  to  its  delivery  at  the 
house  by  the  postman.  The  police  and  the  fire  department 
are  explained  in  a  simple  manner.  General  knowledge  is 
thus  gained  and  classified  in  an  elementary  way,  observation 
is  stimulated,  personal  interest  is  aroused,  and  the  child  feels 
himself  more  distinctly  a  part  of  the  surrounding  life. 

In  the  third  and  fourth  grades,  in  connection  with  local 
history  studies,  some  of  the  institutions  of  the  city,  and  possi- 
bly of  the  state  may  be  studied.    As  in  the 
Third  and  ^Tsi  two  gra(jes    ^g  object  is  not  to  accu- 

Fourtn  Grades 

mulate  a  great  amount  of  detailed  knowl- 
edge, but  to  develop  and  rationalize  the  institutional  side  of 
character. 

In  the  third  grade  study  of  early  Stockton  and  the  growth 
into  a  city,  there  is  opportunity  to  show  the  need  of  a  mayor, 
a  city  government,  protection  from  fire,  at- 
Conditions  tention  to  streets  and  sidewalks,  an  organ- 

ized police  force,  a  city  jail.  This  founding 
and  developing  of  a  town  combined  with  the  growth  of  its 
government  is  a  correlation  of  history  and  civics  that  is 
always  valuable  to  a  student.  The  fourth  grade,  dealing 
with  Stockton  as  it  is  today,  studies  the  modern  city  in  a 
simple  manner.  Attention  is  called  to  the  division  of  the 
city  into  wards,  the  city  council,  the  school  board,  the  city 
parks  and  their  care,  and  many  other  matters  of  interest  to 
children  that  may  suggest  themselves  to  the  teacher.  The 
children  talk  about  their  immediate  surroundings,  the  need 
of  good  sidewalks  and  streets,  the  pleasure  derived  from 
well  kept  parks  and  shady  trees.  They  learn  who  is  the 
member  of  the  city  council  from  their  own  ward,  how  large 

22 


322  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

the  ward  is,  they  inquire  at  home  and  report  in  school  about 
some  of  the  duties  of  a  councilman  toward  his  ward.  Local 
interest  and  patriotism  quickly  adapt  themselves  to  the  larger 
units  of  city,  state,  nation;  but  if  the  local  spirit  has  never 
become  real  and  intense,  broad  patriotism  is  never  truly 
quickened.  Love  for  beautiful,  sanitary,  honestly  won  sur- 
roundings in  one's  own  neighborhood  is  the  foundation  on 
which  to  build  the  desire  for  similar  conditions  in  the  wide 
nation  that  is  our  heritage. 

In  discussing  with  the  children  the  desirability  of  such 
moral  attributes  as  honesty,  bravery,  truthfulness,  unselfish- 
ness,  develop   the   reverse   of  the   picture. 
People  That  is,  have  them  talk  over  why  the  oppo- 

site traits  of  character  are  dangerous  to  the 
happiness  and  well-being  of  the  home,  the  city,  the  state. 
Include  idleness,  ignorance,  and  drunkenness  in  these  dis- 
cussions. Find  out  whether  the  laws  concerning  them 
should  be  those  of  restraint  or  of  training. 

An  important  part  of  the  teacher's  duty  is  to  train  pupils 
in  courteous  habits.     This  is  a  part  of  the  child's  character 

formation  that  goes  on  steadily  at  school,  it 
Conduct 

is  also  one  of  the  points  of  closest  contact 

between  the  home  and  the  school.  The  teacher  deals  with 
the  child  in  his  relation  to  a  larger,  more  formal  society  than 
is  met  in  the  home  life.  The  teacher  should  realize  the 
social  as  well  as  the  intellectual  meaning  of  this  change  and 
should  be  equal  to  the  needed  guidance.  Many  a  child  is 
more  courteous,  truthful,  honest,  and  unselfish  at  home  than 
in  school,  and  the  opposite  is  also  sometimes  true.  Either 
condition  is  almost  wholly  dependent  upon  the  atmosphere 


civics  323 

of  training  and  discipline  in  the  home  or  the  school  rather 
than  upon  the  child  himself.  Short,  pointed,  friendly  talks 
with  the  children  help  wonderfully  in  establishing  a  general 
response  to  genuine,  kindly  courtesy;  and,  since  such  talks 
help  form  the  child's  character,  they  are  an  important  and 
legitimate  division  of  civics,  the  making  of  the  future  citi- 
zen. 

There  should  be  informal  discussions  with  the  children  in 
which  they  express  their  own  opinions  on  such  points  as 
kindness  to  each  other  at  home;  or  at  school,  where  there 
is  less  intimacy  than  in  the  narrower  circle  of  home  and 
immediate  friends.  Between  persons  where  there  is  no 
desire  for  a  close  friendship,  there  may  still  be  that  courte- 
ous friendliness  that  makes  even  strangers  feel  at  ease  in 
each  other's  presence.  Discuss  in  a  similar  way  the  honesty 
that  precludes  cheating  in  school  as  well  as  stealing  money ; 
respect  for  the  old  and  infirm;  unselfishness;  the  bravery 
that  dares  stop  a  fight,  or  use  correct  language  on  the  play- 
ground in  place  of  slang;  manliness  and  womanliness. 

The  subject  matter  must  be  adjusted  constantly  to  the 
maturity  of  the  class.  Lessons  on  the  postman  in  the  first 
or  second  grade  should  be  so  different  from  any  treatment  of 
the  post-office  in  the  fourth  grade,  that  the  children  have  no 
sense  of  repetition  of  old  material.  The  same  is  true  of 
every  topic.  The  work  that  belongs  to  one's  own  grade  is 
what  should  be  attempted,  not  that  of  a  year  or  two  in 

advance. 

GRAMMAR  GRADES 

Instruction  in  the  grammar  grades  includes  a  maturer 
treatment  of  the  topics  used  in  the  primary  grades  and  the 


324  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

study  of  more  difficult  subjects.  A  summary  of  the  latter 
is  given  in  the  following  outline,  suggestive 
Outline  *or  teacners  °*  a11  grades;  brief  class  out- 

lines are  given  under  the  different  years. 

The  machinery  of  government:  ward,  city,  county,  state, 
nation;  the  development  of  this  machinery  through  the 
family,  tribe,  community,  city,  nation;  early  governments  in 
the  United  States, 

Laws :  necessity,  makers,  interpreters,  enforcers,  penalties 
for  violation. 

Finances:  cost  of  government,  taxation,  assessment  of 
property,  expenditures,  safe-keeping  of  money. 

Voting:  machinery,  benefits,  will  of  the  majority. 

Citizenship :  the  "  American  race/'  a  conglomerate ;  for- 
eign born  element,  its  helpful  and  dangerous  sides ;  duties  of 
all  citizens ;  responsibilities ;  interests ;  patriotism ;  dangerous 
citizens ;  "  graft." 

International  relations:  friendship  with  foreign  nations, 
possible  benefits  and  disadvantages. 

Democracy :  its  opportunities  for  all ;  justice  of  its  govern- 
ment; dangers  from  bribery,  carelessness,  dishonesty,  indo- 
lence ;  need  of  educated  citizens ;  higher  education  in  the  high 
school  and  university  should  make  better  citizens  of  boys 
and  girls ;  patriotism ;  the  temptation  offered  by  rank  in  for- 
eign countries  and  the  meaning  of  such  a  society  to  the 
"  lower  classes." 

Some  topics  fit  naturally  into  history,  but  correlation 
should  not  be  made  so  close  that  useful,  easily  comprehended 
topics  in  civics  are  excluded  because  they  do  not  also  occur 
in  history. 

Certain  phases  of  taxation  and  of  the  expenditures  of 


civics  325 

public  money  can  be  studied  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  grades  as 
well  as  in  the  seventh  and  eighth.  Americans  are  proverbi- 
ally careless  of  public  buildings.  Instructions  concerning 
their  acquisition  and  care  are  very  necessary.  Children  often 
deface  public  buildings  because  they  are  ignorant  of  the  fact 
that  the  people  themselves  must  either  endure  the  displeas- 
ing appearance  or  they  must  pay  for  the  renovating.  Waste 
of  public  supplies,  whether  by  oneself  or  permitted  in  some 
one  else  should  be  considered. 

Through  the  last  three  years  of  the  grammar  grades  a 
class  society  is  very  helpful  to  the  pupils  in  acquiring  some 

knowledge  of  how  a  meeting  should  be 
Societies  conducted,  and  of  how  to  work  together  in 

organizations.  Such  a  society  should  have 
a  definite  reason  for  existence;  it  should  not  be  conducted 
in  a  haphazard  manner;  some  recognized  set  of  parliament- 
ary rules  should  be  followed  in  all  the  forms  needed  by  the 
children. 

In  order  to  become  familiar  with  the  needs  of  government, 
the  difficulties  attending  a  democracy,  and  the  consequent 

necessity  for  public  spirit  and  unselfish  at- 
Self- 
Government  tention  to  details  let  the  children  of  any  of 

the  higher  grammar  grades  undertake  some 
degree  of  self-government.  By  the  will  of  the  majority, 
expressed  in  regular  form,  they  can  make  some  rules  for 
their  own  government  in  school,  in  the  yard,  concerning 
their  games;  members  of  the  class  can  be  appointed  or 
elected  to  enforce  these  rules ;  some  form  of  punishment  may 
even  be  decided  upon  for  any  violation  of  the  rules.  Such 
a  self-government  committee  may  become  the  very  life  and 
inspiration  of  a  school.  The  teacher  must,  of  necessity,  be 


326  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

the  guiding  spirit;  the  years  of  childhood  are  the  years  for 
training,  and  pupils  of  the  grammar  grades  are  not  mature 
enough,  they  are  not  well  enough  trained,  to  be  allowed  a 
large  degree  of  independent  self-government.  On  the  other 
hand,  that  which  is  granted  them  must  be  real ;  to  feel  that 
the  committee  is  simply  enforcing  the  teacher's  rules,  or 
that  it  has  no  liberty  of  decision  and  action,  quickly  kills  the 
effectiveness  of  a  so-called  self-government.  If  entered  into 
seriously  and  lived  up  to  by  the  pupils,  there  is  an  invaluable 
training  and  an  insight  and  growth  into  actual  self-govern- 
ment. 

It  is  far  easier  to  begin  such  a  system  than  to  carry  it  out. 
While  the  novelty  lasts  the  pupils  are  enthusiastic;  but,  as 
time  passes,  the  repetition  of  the  common  details  of  govern- 
ment seem  monotonous  to  some ;  or  the  evil  of  influence, 
which  passes  so  easily  into  bribery  of  some  form,  becomes 
apparent.  Here  is  the  opportunity  of  the  teacher.  The  great- 
est dangers  to  our  democratic  institutions  lie  in  corruption 
and  the  apathy  of  honest,  common-sense  citizens.  If  a 
teacher  or  principal  possesses  the  power  to  guide  pupils  past 
this  danger  point  into  steady,  regular  administration  of  petty 
details,  he  has  done  more  for  the  establishment  of  a  depend- 
able public  spirit  than  can  be  accomplished  by  any  other 
study. 

The  following  outline  indicates  centers  of  discussion  and 
instruction  for  the  different  grades. 

FIFTH  YEAR  GRADE 

The  City  (not  to  be  carried  far  into  details). 
Mayor :  name,  length  of  office,  principal  duties. 
Council :  number  of  members,  election,  principal  duties. 


civics  327 

Departments :  fire,  police,  school,  health. 
General  topics : 

Hospitals  and  charitable  associations. 

The  pound,  animals  at  large  in  the  city. 

Dredging  channels. 

Paving  streets  and  laying  sidewalks. 

Sewers. 

Street  sprinkling. 

Water  supply. 

Board  of  education,  principal  powers  and  duties. 

The  schools. 

Public  library. 

Lighting  the  city. 

Misdemeanors,  especially  such  as  may  concern  the  con- 
duct of  children.  Many  offenses  begin  in  ignorance 
or  in  lack  of  respect  for  authority. 

City  property. 

Telephone. 

Wharves. 

Which  of  the  above  regulations  are  for  restraining  citi- 
zens ?  Which  for  training  ?  Which  for  convenience,  pleas- 
ure, well-being,  health?  Are  there  any  that  refer  to  com- 
panies acting  with  the  permission  of  the  city? 

Perhaps  the  most  important  thought  for  the  children  in 
the  above  outline  is  that  pertaining  to  misdemeanors.  Bring 
before  the  class  regulations  that  may  concern  their  own  lives, 
— riding  a  bicycle  on  the  sidewalk,  the  speed  of  an  automo- 
bile, defacing  public  buildings,  petty  thefts.  Throw  a  little 
light  on  the  laws  of  the  city  so  that  the  children  may  act  more 
intelligently.  Remember  that  general  information  and  the 


328  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

cultivation  of  an  intelligent  and  obedient  public  spirit  is  the 
object  of  this  instruction,  not  the  accumulation  of  detailed 
facts.  Indigestible  knowledge  creates  in  the  mind  of  the 
pupil  a  reaction  against  all  study  of  civics ;  assimilated  knowl- 
edge means  deep  and  lasting  interest  in  local  government. 

SIXTH  YEAR  GRADE 

The  general  outline  is  that  of  the  fifth  grade,  with  special 
elaboration  of  certain  topics.  Local  self-government:  its 
need,  benefits,  dangers ;  need  of  honest,  capable  citizens  and 
officials,  the  latter  experienced  in  business  in  a  large  way. 
Legitimate  matters  for  local  control:  making  roads,  build- 
ing bridges,  erecting  public  structures,  educating  children, 
caring  for  poor  and  infirm,  restraining  dangerous  people, 
protecting  the  city  from  fire.  Other  topics  will  suggest 
themselves  to  every  teacher  for  the  greater  fullness  of  treat- 
ment in  this  grade. 

Some  very  brief,  elementary  work  should  be  done  on  the 
state  and  nation.  The  principal  offices  and  their  incum- 
bents may  be  mentioned,  and  some  illustrations  of  the  rela- 
tion between  city  and  state,  or  state  and  nation,  may  be 
made.  These  general  studies  serve  many  purposes.  They 
illustrate  the  similarity  of  organization  throughout  our  vari- 
ous governments ;  the  power  of  the  people  in  making  their 
own  laws ;  the  growing  boundaries  of  authority  through  city, 
county,  state,  nation;  the  more  intense  local  interest  in  the 
smallest  unit  of  government ;  the  petty  details  in  the  smallest 
unit ;  the  growing  gravity  of  interests  involved  in  the  affairs 
of  larger  units;  the  need  of  broad,  loyal  citizenship  every- 
where. 


civics  329 

SEVENTH  AND  EIGHTH  GRADES 

Texts  are  used  either  in  the  class  or  as  supplementary 
reading;  in  the  eighth  grade  a  recitation  period  in  civics 
should  be  arranged  for  on  the  daily  program, 
G  vernmcnt  either  once  or  twice  in  the  week  throughout 

a  definite  portion  of  the  year,  or  for  a  few 
consecutive  weeks.  In  both  grades  the  work  concerns  itself 
less  with  details  of  the  machinery  of  government  than  with 
what  is  being  done  for  the  people  by  the  government;  the 
meaning  of  government ;  its  defects  and  sources  of  strength ; 
the  reasons  why,  in  a  democracy,  the  people  should  under- 
stand the  government.  As,  for  instance,  a  study  is  made  of 
the  care  of  the  poor  on  a  county  poor  farm,  the  hospitals  or 
asylums  for  the  insane,  reform  schools  for  incorrigible  chil- 
dren ;  of  what  this  care  consists,  why  it  is  given,  by  whom, 
who  pays  for  it,  effects  to  the  public  if  it  were  not  given. 
There  are  many  topics  that  can  be  followed  out  in  this  man- 
ner, arousing  lasting  interest  in  actual  social  conditions. 
Details  of  government  must  also  be  studied,  but  they  should 
not  exclude  what  is  being  done  by  putting  in  its  place  how 
it  is  done. 

Some  of  the  topics  for  guidance  of  the  teacher  are : 
Government :  necessity ;  the  family,  school,  societies,  city ; 
various  forms, — democracy,  kingdom,  absolutism;  abuses 
and  perils;  good  citizenship;  personal  character  in  its  rela- 
tion to  government ;  public  spirit,  knowledge  of  state  affairs, 
industries,  relations  to  one  another. 

The  city :  guided  by  the  preceding  outline,  selecting  those 
points  about  which  the  pupils  show  least  knowledge. 

The  county:  geographical  importance;  board  of  supervi- 
sors and  their  duties ;  relation  to  the  city  government ;  county 


33O  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

schools,  roads,  bridges ;  county  seat ;  any  topics  from  "  the 
city  "  that  are  applicable  to  the  county. 

The  state :  governor ;  state  legislature ;  state  duties  toward 
people;  care  of  poor;  of  criminals;  many  topics  from  the 
text. 

The  nation :  historical  connection  with  the  development  of 
the  constitution ;  points  of  contact  with  the  pupil's  life ;  sig- 
nal service ;  life  saving  stations ;  weather  bureau ;  post-office ; 
harbors ;  army  and  naval  cadets.  Make  the  nation  a  living, 
active  entity  in  the  mind  of  the  children.  Details  as  to  the 
government  will  be  mastered  later  if  they  seem  tiresome  and 
dry  in  these  years. 


PART  V 

DRAWING.  MUSIC.   PHYSICAL  CULTURE.  SEWING 


CHAPTER  XVII 

DRAWING.    MUSIC    PHYSICAL  CULTURE.    SEWING 
DRAWING  AND  ART1 

Art  is  added  to  drawing  because  drawing  hardly  covers 
all  the  work  that  is  at  present  given  in  our  schools.    The 
oldtime  drawing  consisted  mostly  of  copy- 
ing from  the  flat  and  the  drawing  of  geo- 
Present  metric  figures,  and  had  at  its  best  the  nar- 

row aim  of  training  only  the  eye  and  the 
hand.  The  chief  aims  of  drawing  as  taught  in  the  best 
schools  today  are  to  lead  the  pupils  to  acquire  first,  the  power 
of  accurate  observation;  second,  keen  perception;  third, 
sound  reasoning;  fourth,  the  development  of  a  taste  for  the 
beautiful  in  nature  and  an  appreciation  for  the  achievements 
of  man  in  art.  To  promote  the  first  three  aims  object  draw- 
ing and  color  work  are  given ;  while  the  study  of  the  prin- 
ciples underlying  designing,  the  study  of  historic  ornament, 
and  the  observation  of  pictures  are  means  to  secure  the 
fourth. 

Art  is  the  oldest  language;  it  is  the  most  natural;  it  is 
universal.    The  oldest  records  of  the  human  race  are  the 

works  of  the  artists  of  their  day.  Art  is  a 
Art  as  a  -  ,  .,  .  .... 

Language  means  of  expression  for  the  ignorant  child 

and  for  the  untutored  savage;  it  is  a  com- 
munication of  thought  for  the  most  highly  civilized  races. 
The  works  of  the  great  masters  of  all  ages  and  all  nations, 

*This  section  on  drawing  and  art  is  taken  very  literally  from 
the  course  of  study  for  the  Stockton  city  schools. 

333 


334  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

such  as  those  of  Phidias,  Raphael,  Diirer,  Murillo,  Rosa 
Bonheur,  Landseer,  need  no  translation.  They  are  uni- 
versally understood. 

Considered  in  this  light,  a  knowledge  of  drawing  and  art 
are  essential  in  a  well-rounded  education.     Instead  of  add- 
ing to  an  already  crowded  school  curricu- 
Correlation 

lum,  in  the  hands  of  a  skillful  teacher  these 

branches  become  aids  in  mastering  other  studies;  as,  arith- 
metic, geography,  nature  study,  history,  literature.  A  pic- 
torial representation,  as  a  drawing,  a  photograph,  or  even  a 
few  touches  with  pencil  or  chalk,  often  makes  a  thought 
clearer  than  when  it  receives  only  oral  or  written  descrip- 
tions. Consequently,  the  correlation  of  drawing  and  art 
with  other  subjects  is  of  great  importance,  although  their 
teaching  as  a  separate  study  is  never  lost  sight  of.  The 
first  thought  in  arranging  the  work  for  the  grades  is  to  have 
a  natural,  gradual  growth  and  development  along  all  the 
lines  included  in  these  branches  throughout  all  the  years  of 
school  life. 

Formerly  the  individuality  of  the  child  was  not  sufficiently 

respected;  today  there  is  more  danger  of  not  doing  enough 

class  work.     To  foster  individuality  original 

Individual  exercises,  as  narrative  drawing  and  design- 

Qass  Work  in&>  are  Siven  f reQuently  J  general  drills  and 

training  are  found  in  directed  work,  as 
drawing  objects  and  geometric  designs.  While  there  are 
many  reasons  for  the  original  work,  the  training  under 
guidance  must  not  be  neglected,  or  no  progress  will  be  made 
along  general,  systematic  lines.  The  two  forms  of  exercise 
are  necessary  in  public  school  work  if  good  results  are  to 
be  obtained. 


DRAWING,    MUSIC,   PHYSICAL   CULTURE,    SEWING        335 

The  work  of  the  course  for  the  schools  is  arranged  under 
four  general  headings :  constructive  work,  object  drawing, 
creative  drawing,  and  the  aesthetics  of  art.  No  marked  divi- 
sion line  is  drawn  between  these  phases  of  art  study  with 
the  children  of  the  grades,  and  each  is  liberally  interpreted 
in  its  relation  to  all  the  others ;  but  the  four  lines  of  growth 
are  carefully  nurtured  throughout  the  eight  years  of  the  ele- 
mentary schools. 

The  constructive  work  consists  of  paper  folding,  drawing 
geometric  figures  and  designs,  using  the  ruler,  drawing  to 

scale.     The  various  exercises  are  carefully 
Constructive 
Work  planned  to  tram  accuracy  and  attention,  and 

are  arranged  to  correlate  with  the  more 
mechanical  studies  of  the  course,  as  arithmetic  and  geog- 
raphy. 

Object  drawing  consists  of  the  drawing  of  objects  either 
singly  or  in  groups.     For  this  purpose  models  are  used,  such 
as  geometric  solids,  vase  forms,  and  other 
Drawing  figures;  leaves,  flowers,  seeds,  animals,  fel- 

low pupils.  These  all  afford  desirable 
training  in  the  power  of  accurate  observation,  keen  percep- 
tion, and  sound  reasoning.  Suitable  subjects  are  also  as- 
signed in  nature  study  for  the  object  drawing  whenever  it 
is  possible. 

Creative  drawing  is  subdivided  into  narrative  drawing  and 

designing.     The  first  is  more  suitable  for  primary  grades, 

while  the  second  is  better  adapted  to  the 

Drlwilg  greater  maturity  of  the  grammar  grades. 

The  material  for  narrative  drawing  is  taken 

largely   from   history  and   literature.     This   should  be  an 

opportunity   for   the   free   expression  of  the   child's  own 


336  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

thoughts  and  conceptions;  but,  at  the  same  time,  his  atten- 
tion should  be  called  to  the  proportions  of  the  various  parts ; 
he  should  be  encouraged  to  make  use  of  the  knowledge 
gained  from  object  drawing,  thus  aiding  in  the  development 
of  a  healthy  imagination.  Designing  should  also  be  indi- 
vidual work,  although  the  attention  of  the  child  should  be 
called  to  the  underlying  principles.  Here  is  the  opportunity 
to  make  use  of  the  geometric  drawing  of  the  constructive 
training  and  of  the  freedom  and  observation  of  the  training 
in  object  drawing;  for  the  designs  must  be  based  upon  con- 
structive lines,  and  the  conventionalized  forms  of  foliage, 
flowers,  and  seeds  are  the  most  frequently  used  units.  De- 
signing is  the  practical  channel  for  the  development  of  taste 
through  individual  effort. 

Under  the  fourth  heading  of  the  course  is  placed  every- 
thing which  tends  to  awaken  an  appreciation  for  the  beauti- 
ful; but  no  attempt  is  made  to  teach  the 
ofh^SthetiCS  theory  of  art.  Growth  in  such  knowledge 
is  induced  by  teaching  color  and  calling  at- 
tention to  color  harmony;  secondly,  by  studying  historic 
ornament,  and  by  acquainting  the  children  with  the  lives 
and  some  of  the  works  of  a  few  of  the  great  masters  in  the 
world  of  art ;  thirdly,  by  more  general  picture  study  as  con- 
nected with  tasteful  schoolroom  decoration.  All  these 
efforts  and  acquisitions  give  an  unconscious  tendency  toward 
a  fuller  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  and  a  clearer  under- 
standing of  the  higher  standards  of  art.  In  all  this  work  it 
must  not  be  forgotten  that  one  of  the  highest  aims  is  to  de- 
velop in  the  child  the  power  to  see  for  himself  the  beautiful 
in  nature. 


DRAWING,    MUSIC,    PHYSICAL   CULTURE,   SEWING        337 

Blackboard  drawing  should  be  encouraged,  for  the  draw- 
ing can  be  done  on  a  larger  scale,  a  necessary  consideration 

for  little  children  with  still  undeveloped 
Drawing"  muscles.  It  admits  of  greater  freedom  of 

movement  and  stroke;  criticism  by  the 
teacher  is  more  easily  made  and  observed  by  all  the  class ;  it  is 
an  invaluable  means  for  training  all  children,  especially  timid 
ones,  in  freer  and  bolder  work.  In  the  lower  grades,  some 
time  every  day  should  be  given  to  drawing  on  the  boards. 

The  necessity  for  training  in  the  use  of  color  must  be 
fully  recognized.     Color  work  begins   in  the  first  grade, 

where  the  earliest  steps  are  taken  by  means 
Work  of  the  spectrum  and  color  slips,  and  by 

letting  the  children  draw  with  colored  cray- 
ons on  the  blackboard  and  with  wax  crayons  on  paper.  From 
the  second  grade  water  color  boxes  are  used. 

Brush  work  begins  in  the  third  grade,  writing  ink  or 

neutral  colors  being  used.  For  this  and 
w  .  all  color  work  Chinese  brushes  are  used. 

A  few  lessons  in  pen  and  ink  are  given  in 
the  upper  grades. 

The  general  medium  of  expression  is  the  pencil,  but  other 
mediums  are  also  used.     Pencils  for  drawing  are  furnished 

from  the  third  grade  through  all  the  upper 

classes.  The  "  Eagle  Academic,  Soft  Me- 
dium," is  used  in  the  primary  grades  and  also  in  the  fifth 
grade ;  in  the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  grades  "  Eagle 
Draughting,  No.  314,"  is  used.  For  pencil  and  brush  work 
a  rough  manilla  paper  is  used ;  for  the  color  work,  a  rough 
white  paper;  while  for  special  work  the  children  are  fur- 
nished at  times  with  white  or  gray  paper,  well  adapted  for 
23 


METHODS  IN   TEACHING 

color  or  pen  and  ink  work.    The  paper  is  put  up  in  pads  6x9 

inches  in  size  for  use  in  the  grades  up  to  and  including  the 

fifth ;  in  the  higher  grades,  pads  9x12  inches  are  used. 

Every   school   building  has   shelves   for   drawing   models. 

These  are  well  proportioned  vase  forms  and  type  solids. 

To  give  variety  and  to  add  to  the  interest,  the  children  bring 

natural  forms  and  interesting  objects  used  in  every  day  life. 
The  lighting  of  the  schoolroom  has  been  little  considered 

in  connection  with  the  drawing.  It  is  an  essential.  Poor 
lighting  is  a  great  drawback  to  the  work  in 
regular  class  rooms;  while  proper  lighting, 

as  it  is  provided  for  in  modern  buildings  of  the  better  kind, 

greatly  facilitates  all  work  in  drawing. 

PHYSICAL  CULTURE1 

There  is  no  longer  a  question  as  to  whether  physical  cul- 
ture shall  be  taught  in  the  schools.  Nature  has  not  provided 

for  an  unaided  development  of  the  mind, 
Development  and  we  cannot  assume  that  of  itself  the  body 
and  Body  wil1  acQuire  rignt  habits  of  performing  all 

its  functions,  especially  under  the  artificial 
conditions  in  which  the  growing  child  is  placed.  The  de- 
velopment of  the  mind  and  body  must  go  hand  in  hand,  for 
a  healthy  body  is  the  basis  of  intellectual,  moral,  and  spiritual 
growth.  Complexities  of  modern  life  make  constantly  in- 
creasing demands  upon  mental  and  nervous  forces,  and 
children  must  be  trained  physically  if  they  are  to  have  sound, 
sturdy  bodies,  capable  of  withstanding  the  wear  and  tear  of 
the  struggle  before  them.  Nature  demands  the  cultivation 

*The  section  on  physical  culture  is  compiled  from  the  course  of 
study  for  the  city  schools  as  arranged  by  Miss  Emily  Dodge,  super- 
visor of  that  branch. 


DRAWING,    MUSIC,    PHYSICAL   CULTURE,   SEWING        339 

of  all  our  activities,  and  there  can  be  no  proper  training  that 
does  not  educate  the  whole  system  of  man. 

The  exercises  used  are  selected  and  arranged  with  the 
following  points  in  view :  Real  value  in  the  development  of 
the  body.  The  limitations  of  the  school  room  as  regards 
time  and  space.  Systematic  training  of  large  numbers  with- 
out confusion. 

In  the  first  lessons  the  children  are  taught  the  correct  rest 
and  active  positions  of  the  body  while  seated,  the  manner  of 

rising  and  sitting,  and  the  correct  standing 
Positions 

position.  The  simplest  exercises  are  selected 

for  the  first  and  second  years  in  school,  and  the  work  is 
made  as  objective  as  possible.  For  example,  in  stretching 
the  arms  upward  the  teacher  says :  "  Try  to  touch  the  ceil- 
ing;" or  something  to  arouse  the  conscious  effort  of  reach- 
ing up  after  an  object.  In  the  horizontal  arm  stretching  for 
chest  expansion  they  are  told,  "  Try  to  touch  the  sides  of  the 
room."  Exercises  in  marching  are  given  in  all  the  lower 
grades  as  helpful  in  forming  correct  habits  of  carriage  for 
the  body.  The  position  for  marching,  "  head  erect,  chest 
leading,  hips  back,  hands  at  sides,  weight  on  the  balls  of  the 
feet "  should  be  retained  as  the  children  march  around  the 
room  or  through  the  aisles,  keeping  step  as  they  sing  some 
bright  marching  song.  No  exercise  is  more  thoroughly 
enjoyed  than  marching,  and  none  is  more  helpful  in  afford- 
ing the  needed  rest  and  relaxation  from  the  study  period. 

The  attention  given  in  the  first  years  to  the  position  in 
sitting  and  standing  is  continued  throughout  the  course.  In 
the  upper  grades  special  stress  is  laid  upon  the  correct  carri- 
age of  the  body.  This  is  essential,  not  only  as  a  matter  of 
gracefulness,  but  also  for  health.  The  result  of  regular, 


34°  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

systematic  exercise  in  the  schools  is  visible  in  the  improved 
health  and  physical  development  of  the  children. 

MUSIC1 

Music  holds  a  distinctive  place  in  education,  one  which  no 
other  study  can  fill.     It  develops  the  emotional  nature  and 

reaches  to  the  higher  and  inner  life  of  the 
Education  heart  and  the  soul.  "  The  meaning  of  song 

goes  deep.  Who  is  there  who  in  logical 
words  can  express  the  effect  music  has  upon  us  ?  A  kind  of 
inarticulate,  unfathomable  speech  which  leads  us  to  the  edge 
of  the  infinite."  Martin  Luther  says :  "  Music  admonishes 
man,  renders  him  mild,  gentle,  modest,  and  reasonable.  He 
who  knows  the  art  is  ennobled  by  it  and  has  aptitude  for  all 
things."  How  carefully  must  this  subject  be  presented  so 
that  it  may  perform  its  true  office  of  developing  high  and 
noble  ideals  which  may  become  realities  in  the  life  and  char- 
acter of  the  child. 

Great  care  is  exercised  in  selecting  songs  both  as  to  words 
and  music,  for  impressions  that  are  to  be  lasting  are  being 

formed.     Every    song   should    represent    a 

mood  that  the  child  can  feel  and  express; 
the  music  should  be  suited  to  the  words  and  in  a  key  that  is 
adapted  to  the  voices.  The  songs  are  often  chosen  with 
reference  to  the  season  of  the  year,  correlating  when  possi- 
ble with  nature  study,  literature,  or  history.  No  song  should 
ever  be  sung  in  a  lifeless  or  indifferent  manner.  "  There  is 
a  correspondence  between  the  soul  of  a  song  and  the  heart  of 
a  child,"  and  if  the  teacher  is  enthusiastic,  in  sympathy  with 

1The  section  on  music  is  compiled  from  the  course  of  study  for 
the  city  schools  as  given  by  Miss  Emily  Dodge,  supervisor  in  music. 


DRAWING,    MUSIC,   PHYSICAL   CULTURE,   SEWING        341 

the  children,  and  susceptible  to  the  sentiment  of  the  song, 

it  is  not  difficult  to  establish  this  correspondence.    The  music 

lesson  should  always  be  a  happy  period. 

When  singing  there  should  be  a  natural  erect  position  of 

the  body  with  chest  active  and  head  up.     If  the  chest  is  in- 
active the  breath  is  impeded,  and  if  the  head 

Position 

is  down  the  chin  presses  upon  the  larynx, 

preventing  its  free  action.  In  the  motion  songs  and  the 
games  of  the  primary  grades  there  should  be  entire  freedom 
from  self-consciousness.  The  more  natural  and  spontane- 
ous the  play,  the  better  for  the  music  and  the  child. 

The  breathing  exercises  may  be  given  during  the  music 

lesson,  or  in  connection  with  the  physical  culture,  or  at  any 

time  during  the  day  when  rest  from  the 

Exercises?  study  period  is  needed.     The  criterion  for 

correct  inspiration  is  "  an  increase  in  the  size 

of  the  abdomen  and  lower  part  of  the  chest.    Whoever 

draws  in  the  abdomen  and  raises  the  upper  part  of  the  chest 

in  the  act  of  filling  the  lungs  breathes  wrongly." 

Simple  vocal  drills  are  introduced  in  the  first  year  and 
continued  throughout  the  course  in  order  to  overcome  the 

tendency  of  the  ordinary  child  to  scream 
Vocal  Drills  * 

his  notes  and  so  as  to  secure  pure,  sweet, 

sympathetic  singing.  Loud,  harsh  singing  not  only  injures 
the  throat  but  it  emphasizes  those  very  traits  of  character 
that  it  should  be  the  province  of  music  to  overcome. 

Sight  reading  does  not  mean  simply  a  mental  exercise  of 
reading  from  note  to  note.     "  Singing  is  the 

ojUuLY 

Reading  expression  of  the  emotions  and  not  of  the 

intellect,"  consequently  sight  reading  should 

include  the  sentiment  of  the  song  as  well  as  the  mental 


342  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

exercise  of  reading  the  notes.  If  the  exercises  are  sung  in 
phrases  and  with  expression,  it  is  not  always  necessary  to 
have  words  with  which  to  express  the  emotion.  The  order 
of  the  lesson  should  be  varied  frequently  to  prevent  monot- 
ony, and  so  that  the  children  do  not  become  weary  and 
inattentive  by  dwelling  too  long  on  any  one  feature.  The 
exercises  should  be  selected  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  class, 
and  when  a  difficult  one  is  mastered  needless  repetition 
should  be  avoided. 

Every  morning  session  should  be  opened  with  singing,  and 
in  the  primary  grades  there  should  also  be  a  closing  song. 

The  first  lesson  in  the  receiving  class  consists  of  a  few 
simple  exercises  for  placing  the  tone  and  uniting  the  voices. 
Then  come  the  rote  songs  which  are  the 
s  principal  feature  of  the  lessons  in  the  first 

year.  These  are  chosen  for  a  pleasing 
melody  and  a  strong  rhythm.  Words  and  music  are  pre- 
sented at  the  same  time.  The  rote  songs  for  the  primary 
grades  are  selected  with  the  utmost  care  so  that  the  form  of 
the  song  is  correct,  the  rhythm  perfect,  and  the  words  suited 
to  the  melody  and  within  the  comprehension  of  the  children. 

As  the  lessons  proceed  the  scale  is  taught,  beginning  with 
the  upper  tone  and  singing  down;  then  follow  the  simple 

intervals  and  the  combinations  of  tones. 
Scales 

Realizing  that  the  ear  is  especially  sympa- 
thetic at  this  age,  great  care  is  taken  to  have  tfye  pitch  of 
every  tone  absolutely  true  and  every  interval  thoroughly 
fixed  in  the  mind.  From  this  simple  beginning  a  course  has 
been  outlined  for  primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar 
grades,  so  that  a  teacher  knows  what  is  required  in  music 
from  month  to  month,  just  as  in  all  other  branches. 


DRAWING,   MUSIC,   PHYSICAL   CULTURE,   SEWING        343 

The  course  includes  opening  and  closing  songs,  songs  of 
home  life,  songs  descriptive  of  various  occupations,  and 

songs  of  nature.     The  latter  are  arranged  to 

harmonize  with  the  California  climate.  In 
the  intermediate  grades,  where  the  pupils  have  learned  to 
read  at  sight,  part  songs  are  given,  soprano  and  alto  being 
taken  interchangeably  by  boys  and  girls.  When  the  higher 
grammar  grades  are  reached  the  change  in  boys'  voices  has 
to  be  considered,  and  care  is  exercised  to  keep  the  voice 
within  a  suitable  range  so  that  it  is  not  overtaxed.  The 
music  for  these  grades  is  divided  into  soprano,  alto,  and 
bass.  The  part  songs  and  choruses  that  are  used  consist  of 
folk  songs  and  strong,  characteristic  hymns  and  melodies. 

The  time  allowed  for  music  on  the  daily  program  is  fifteen 
minutes.  The  supervisor  visits  every  class  once  a  week, 

taking  charge  of  the  instruction  the  first 
Supervision  an(^  tmrc^  weeks  on  the  occasion  of  the  visit, 

overseeing  the  lesson  as  given  by  the  grade 
teacher  the  second  and  fourth  weeks.  Teachers'  meetings 
are  held  once  a  week  for  the  instruction  of  new  teachers  and 
of  any  others  needing  the  help. 

SEWING1 

The  economical  and  practical  value  of  manual  training  to 
the  future  mother  and  housekeeper  can  not  be  over-esti- 
mated. The  early  habits  of  industry  and  the  standard  of 
good  workmanship  thus  fostered,  the  uplifting  of  hand  work 
by  placing  it  among  the  studies  of  the  public  school,  will  add 
dignity  to  the  woman  and  give  pride  in  an  accomplishment 

*The  accompanying  pages  on  sewing  are  taken  from  a  short  de- 
scription of  the  work  by  Mrs.  Marie  Reimers,  supervisor  of  sewing 
in  the  Stockton  city  schools. 


344  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

so  essential  to  good  housekeeping.  The  immediate  whole- 
some educational  effect  upon  the  girl  is  of  no  less  value. 
Order,  patience,  perseverance,  concentration,  determination, 
and  ingenuity  are  stitched  into  every  garment;  and  to  de- 
velop thoroughness,  independence,  originality,  and  individ- 
uality should  be  the  aim  of  every  system  of  manual  training. 

The  practical  teacher  of  sewing  is  soon  confronted  with 
the  fact  that  individual  teaching  is  necessary  to  attain  the 
best  results.  If  need  be  the  regular  plan  of  the  work  must 
be  made  so  elastic  as  to  suit  the  pace  of  those  who  are  swift 
of  eye  and  hand  and  who,  after  all,  are  the  teacher's  best 
assistants ;  for  through  their  grit  and  enthusiasm  the  whole 
class  may  be  fired  to  greater  efforts,  and  the  slow  of  eye  and 
hand  may  come  out  triumphant  in  the  end. 

The  general  outline  of  sewing  in  the  public  schools  of 
Stockton  comprises  cutting  and  neat  preparation  and  sewing 
of  the  work  by  the  pupils.  Objects  similar  in  practice  but 
different  in  form  are  given,  thus  arousing  zeal  and  interest 
in  the  children.  Sewing  is  taught  in  the  seventh  and  eighth 
grades,  one  lesson  a  week.  The  period  is  three-quarters  of 
an  hour  long  in  the  seventh  grade,  an  hour  in  the  eighth. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  term  every  pupil  in  the  seventh  grade 
is  provided  with  a  half  yard  of  checked  gingham  and  a  quar- 
ter of  a  yard  of  muslin.  Later  on  in  the  term  both  grades 
furnish  their  own  material,  thus  giving  full  scope  to  indi- 
vidual taste  and  originality. 

The  different  stitches,  seams,  and  fastenings  of  threads 
are  first  taught  on  a  frame  and  copied  by  the  child  on  a  piece 
of  gingham.  The  child  is  then  ready  to  put  the  first  lessons 
into  practical  use  by  cutting,  basting,  and  joining  by  hand 


DRAWING,    MUSIC,   PHYSICAL   CULTURE,   SEWING        345 

twelve  squares,  as  part  of  a  larger  quilt.  Then  follow  in 
succession  in  the  two  years'  course : 

(i)  Sewing  bag:  practice  in  cutting,  hemming,  overcast- 
ing, and  outline  or  embroidery  stitch  for  initial.  (2)  Needle 
case;  practice  in  cutting,  backstitching,  and  overcasting. 
(3)  Apron:  practice  in  cutting,  hemming,  gathering,  and 
putting  on  band;  also,  for  advanced  pupils,  the  cross  stitch 
or  simple  drawn  work.  (4)  Sleevelets  :  practice  in  cutting, 
French  seam,  and  hemming.  (5)  Darning.  (6)  Patch- 
ing-  (7)  Mending  woolen  dress  goods.  (8)  Buttonhol- 
ing. (9)  Handkerchief:  practice  in  hemstitching  and  sew- 
ing on  lace.  (10)  Corset  cover:  practice  in  cutting  by  pat- 
tern, repetition  of  former  work,  facing,  (n)  Shirt  waist. 
(12)  Skirt. 

In  December  embroidery  and  other  fancy  work  suitable 
for  use  as  Christmas  gifts  are  taught,  and  complete  freedom 
of  choice  is  given. 

In  these  lessons  no  attempt  is  made  to  teach  by  chart,  but 
the  pupil  is  familiarized  with  handling  patterns,  so  that  by 
independent  use  of  scissors  and  needle  she  can  in  the  future 
expand  and  achieve  her  operations  as  taste  and  purse  will 
allow.  The  resurrection  of  our  grandmother's  art  proves 
indeed  a  blessing  to  the  girl  of  today,  and  industry  and  use- 
fulness are  fast  becoming  ideals  of  our  times. 


REFERENCE   BOOKS 
LITERATURE  AND  READING 

TEACHERS'  LIST 

Arnold.    Reading:  How  to  Teach  It. 
Arnold.    Waymarks  for  Teachers. 
McMurray.    Special  Method  in  Reading^ 

Teaching  Reading  in  Ten  Cities.    A  series  of  articles  published  in 
Primary  Education  for  1899-1900. 

FOR  CLASS  USE 
First  Year  Grade 

Open  Sesame  I.    For  poems  for  reading  by  teacher  and  for  mem- 
orizing by  the  pupils. 
Scudder.    Fables  and  Folk  Stories. 
McMurray.    Classic  Stories  for  the  Little  Ones. 
Kipling.    The  Jungle  Books. 

Stevenson,  Robert  Louis.    Some  of  his  poems  for  children. 
Blaisdell.    Child  Life. 
Bates.    A  Fairy  Tale  of  a  Fox.    * 

Second  Year  Grade 

Andersen,  Hans  Christian.    The  Little  Match  Girl,  and  other  stories. 

Craik,  Mrs.  D.  M.    Adventures  of  a  Brownie. 

Dodge,  Mary  Mapes.    Hans  Brinker.     * 

Beale.    Stories  from  the  Old  Testament. 

Kingsley,  Charles.    The  Heroes,  or  Greek  Fairy  Tales  for  Children. 

Hawthorne,  Nathaniel.    Tanglewood  Tales. 

Wonder  Book. 

Blaisdell.    Child  Life  in  Tale  and  Fable. 
Smythe.    Old  Time  Stories  Retold. 
Chaplin,    Little  Folks  of  Other  Lands. 

Third  Year  Grade 

Arabian  Nights,  Six  Stories  from  Eliot  , 

Lamb,  Charles.    Adventures  of  Ulysses. 

346 


REFERENCE   BOOKS  347 

"Ouida"  (Louise  de  la  Ramee).    The  Dog  of  Flanders. 

The  Nurnburg  Stove. 
Mulock,  Miss.    The  Little  Lame  Prince. 
McMurray.    Robinson  Crusoe. 
Baldwin.    Fifty  Famous  Stories  Retold. 
Heller.    Snowdrop  and  Other  Stories. 

Fourth  Year  Grade 
Swift.    Gulliver's  Travels. 
Andrews.    Seven  Little  Sisters. 
Cooke.    Nature  Myths. 
Lang.    The  History  of  Whittington. 
The  Princess  on  the  Glass  Hill. 

Fifth  Year  Grade 
Hawthorne.    Tanglewood  Tales. 

The  Paradise  of  Children. 

The  Miraculous  Pitcher. 
Sewell.    Black  Beauty. 
Kingsley.    Water  Babies. 
Brown.    Rab  and  His  Friends. 
Thompson,  Ernest  Seton.    Wild  Animals  that  I  have  Known. 

The  Biography  of  a  Grizzly. 
Schwatka.    The  Children  of  the  Cold. 

Sixth  Year  Grade 

Ruskin.    King  of  the  Golden  River. 
Dickens.    Little  Nell. 
Scott.    Stories  from  Waverley. 
Hawthorne.    The  Great  Stone  Face. 
Browning.    The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin. 
Lamb.    Tales  from  Shakespeare. 
Alcott.    Little  Women. 

Little  Men. 

Andrews.    Ten  Boys  on  the  Road  from  Long  Ago. 
Pratt.    Stories  of  Colonial  Children. 
Brooks.    The  Story  of  the  Iliad. 

The  Story  of  the  Odyssey. 

Eighth  Year  Grade 

Lamb.    Tales  from  Shakespeare. 
Johnson,  Dr.    Rasselas. 


348  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

Yonge.    The  Prince  and  the  Page. 
Warner.    Being  a  Boy. 

A  Hunting  of  the  Deer. 
Hale.    A  Man  without  a  Country. 
Hughes.    Tom  Brown  at  Rugby. 
Dana.    Two  Years  before  the  Mast. 
Cooper.     (Several  of  his  stories.) 
Kingsley.    "Westward  Hoi" 

LANGUAGE 
TEACHERS'  LIST 

Primary  Grades 

Arnold  and  Kittredge.    The  Mother  Tongue,  Book  I. 
Tarbell.    Lessons  in  Language,  Book  I. 
Badlam,  Anna  B.    Language  and  Reading. 
Sheldon.    Primary  Language  Lessons. 

Grammar  Grades 

Lewis.    A  First  Book  in  Writing  English. 

A   First   Manual   of   Composition.     (Especially   applicable   for 

eighth  grades.) 

Chittenden.    Elements  of  English  Composition. 
Lockwood.    Lessons  in  English. 
Scott    and    Denney.     Composition-Rhetoric.      (A    book    for    high 

schools,  but  an  excellent  guide  for  teachers  in  eighth  grades.) 
Kittredge  and  Arnold.    The  Mother  Tongue,  Book  II. 
Tarbell.    Lessons  in  Language,  Book  II. 
Davenport  and  Emerson.    Principles  of  Grammar. 
Sheldon.    Advanced  Language  Lessons. 

FOR  ALL  GRADES 
Bechtel.    Slips  of  Speech. 
Allardyce.    Punctuation. 

Hardy,  Irene.    Composition  Exercises.     (Full  of  valuable  sugges- 
tions for  devising  subjects  for  compositions.) 

WORD  STUDY 

Arnold.    Reading:  How  to  Teach  It. 

Pollard.    Manual  of  Synthetic  Reading  and  Spelling. 

Ward.    The  Rational  Method  in  Reading. 


REFERENCE  BOOKS  349 

ARITHMETIC 

Specr.    Elementary  Arithmetic. 

McLellan  and  Ames.    Public  School  Arithmetic. 

Prince.    Arithmetic  by  Grades. 

Eaton.    The  New  Arithmetic. 

Walsh.    Higher  Arithmetic. 

The  Psychology  of  Number. 

NATURE  STUDY 

Bailey,  L.  H.    Lessons  with  Plants. 
Elementary  Botany. 
The  Nursery  Book. 

Gray,  Asa.    How  Plants  Grow. 

Newell,  Jane  H.    Outline  Lessons  in  Botany.    2  vols. 

Parsons-Buck.    Wild  Flowers  of  California. 

Comstock,  John  H.    Insect  Life. 

Miall,  L.  C.    Natural  History  of  Aquatic  Insects. 

Keeler,  Charles  A.    Bird  Notes  Afield. 

Miriam,  Florence.    Birds  thru  an  Opera  Glass. 

Parker,  T.  Jeffrey.    Elementary  Biology. 

Jenkins  and  Kellogg.    Lessons  in  Nature  Study. 

Murche,  Vincent  T.    Object  Lessons  for  Infants.    2  vols. 
Object  Lessons  in  Elementary  Science.    3  vols. 

Woodhull,  John  F.    Simple  Experiments. 

Laurie,  A.  P.    Food  of  Plants. 

Bulletins  of  United  States  Agricultural  Department.  Monthly  lists 
furnished  on  application.  (Teachers  should  by  all  means 
make  use  of  this  source  for  literature  on  school  gardens,  agri- 
cultural methods,  etc.) 

GEOGRAPHY 

Farnham.    Oswego  Methods  in  Geography. 

Geike.    Physical  Geography. 

Shaler.    First  Book  in  Geology. 

Parker.    How  to  Study  Geography. 

Mill.    Realm  of  Nature. 

Tarr  and  McMurray.    Home  Geography,  Book  I. 

North  America,  Book  II. 
Frye.    Child  and  Nature. 
Redway.    Advanced  Geography. 
King.    Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography. 


3  SO  METHODS   IN   TEACHING 

HISTORY 

Beale.    Stories  from  the  Old  Testament  for  Children. 
Brooks.    The  Story  of  the  Iliad. 

The  Story  of  the  Odyssey. 
Ragozin.    Earliest  Peoples. 
Guerber.    The  Story  of  the  Romans. 

The  Story  of  the  Greeks. 
Harding.    The  City  of  the  Seven  Hills. 

Stories  of  Greek  Gods,  Heroes,  and  Men. 
Moore.    Pilgrims  and  Puritans. 
Eggleston.    Story  of  Great  Americans  for  Little  Americans. 

Household  History  of  the  United  States. 
Brooks,  Elbridge.    True  Story  of  Abraham  Lincoln. 

True  Story  of  Columbus. 

True  Story  of  Washington. 
Fiske.    History  of  the  United  States. 
Montgomery.    Leading  Facts  in  American  History. 
Sheldon  (Mrs.  Mary  Sheldon  Barnes).    Studies  in  American  His- 
tory. 

McMaster.    School  History  of  the  United  States. 
Towle.    Heroes  and  Martyrs  of  Invention. 
Mowry.    American  Inventions  and  Inventors. 
Powers.    The  Missions  of  California. 
James.    Old  Missions  and  Mission  Indians  of  California. 
Winterburn.    The  Spanish  in  the  Southwest. 
Royce.    California.    American  Commonwealth  Series. 
Hood.    Tales  of  Discovery  on  the  Pacific  Slope. 
Snedden.    Docas,  the  Indian  Boy  of  Santa  Clara. 

CIVICS 
Dole.    The  Young  Citizen. 

The  American  Citizen. 
Jutison.    The  Young  American. 
Macy.    Civil  Government. 
Young.    Government  Class  Book. 
Fiske.    Civil  Government  in  the  United  States. 

American  Political  Ideas. 

Ford.    American  Citizen's  Manual,  Parts  I.  and  II. 
Bryce.    American  Commonwealth.    2  vols. 


INDEX. 


Addition,  129,  136,  137,  138,  139, 
140,  141,  145,  149,  161,  162 
Adjective,  71,  76,  80 
modifiers,  72,  85 
Adverb,  67,  76,  80 

adverbial  connectives,  68,  72, 

86 
adverbial    modifiers,    72,    76, 

85 

Africa,  250,  255 
Air,  action  of,  238 

chemistry    of,    217 
currents  of,  206,  208,  257 
pressure  of,  210 
Alaska,  253 
Alcohol,  229 

Algebraic  formulas,   162,   164 
America,  287,  306,  307 
Animal  study,   173,   190 

animals   as   soil   makers,   200 
Aquarium,    190 
vessel,  191 
life,  191-197 
Arithmetic    127 

first      grade,      1 34 ;      second 
grade,     136;     third     grade, 
139;     fourth     grade,    145; 
fifth      grade,      149 ;      sixth 
grade,   156;   seventh  grade, 
161 ;  eighth  grade,  164 
group  work,  133 
incidental  period,  133,  134 
mental,    129,    151,    161,    164, 

165 

problems    in,    130,    142,    146, 
151,  161,  162,  164,  167,  237 
Asia,  250,  255 
Australia,  255 


Barometer,  213 

Bible  stories,  9,  20,  267 

Birds,  199 

Brush  work,  337 

California,  245,  251,  280,  283,  313 

Candle,    experiments    with,    225- 
227 

Carbon-dioxide,  220 

Carbon-bisulphide,   221,   222 

Gary  sisters,  11,  12 

Caterpillars,  198 

Central  America,  253 

Civics,   316 

primary  grades,   317 
grammar  grades,  323 
fifth  grade,  326;  sixth  grade, 
328 ;    seventh    grade,    329 ; 
eighth    grade,    329 

City,  236,  243,  320,  326,  328,  329 

Climate,  228,  238,  258 

Color  work,  337 

Columbus,  270,  272,  287,  288 

Combustion,    221-227 

Composition,  53,  54 

first  grade,  60 ;  second  grade, 
64;  third  grade,  69;  fourth 
grade,  73  ;  fifth  grade,  80 ; 
sixth  grade,  87 ;  seventh 
grade,  90;  eighth  grade,  96 
in  literature :  first  grade,  1 0  ; 
second  grade,  12,  14;  third 
grade,  17,  19 ;  fourth 
grade,  19,  20;  fifth  grade, 
30;  sixth  grade,  39,  40; 
seventh  grade,  42,  44,  45 
correcting  papers,  55,  56,  69, 
75,  91,  95,  97 


351 


352 


INDEX. 


Compound     numbers,     148,     150, 

155 

Condensation,  202 
Counting,    136 
County,  239,  240,  329 
Creamery,  244 

excursion   to,   246 
Crusades,  42,  299 
Cuba,  253 
Cube  root,  168 

Dickens,  46 

Dictionary,   use   of,   25,    27,    116, 

117 

Division,  129,  136,  138,  141,  145, 
162 

long  division,  148,  149 
Dog,  199 
Drawing,   333 

blackboard  drawing,   337 

Creative   drawing,   335 

object  drawing,  335 

in  history,  274 

in    literature,    7,    11,    25,    36, 
46,  83 

in  nature  study,  175 

England,  256,  297,  306 
Europe,  250,  255,  299 
Evaporation,  201 
Expansion,  by  heat,  203,  205 
by  freezing,  205 

Factoring,   152 

Fairy  stories,  265 

Field,   Eugene,    11,   12 

Figures  of  speech,  25,  31,  35,  82 

Flowers,    181 

Folk  tales,  9,  265 

Fractions,  common,  127 

by  constructive  work,  142 
by    measurements,    146 
fundamental       operations 
with,   150-155 


Fractions,       common,       text-book 

presentation    of,    161 
reviews  of,   162 
decimal,    127,    156,    157-159, 
161,  162 

Gases,  collecting  by  displacement, 

218 

pressure  of,  209 
Geography,  231 

first  grade,  234;  second 
grade,  234;  third  grade, 
236 ;  fourth  grade,  237 ; 
fifth  grade,  248;  sixth 
grade,  251  ;  seventh  grade, 
255;  eighth  grade,  259 
Geographical  excursion,  232 

to  the  creamery,  246 
Geographical  type,  233 
Grammar,  applied,  49,  59,  61,  66, 

70,  72,  79,  84,  88,  95 
formal,   or  technical,   49,   52, 

79,  83,  88,  92,  95 
Greeks,  298 
Greece,  299,  300,  304 

Hawaiian  Islands,  253 

Health  lessons,  229 

Heat,  expansion  by,  203 

Hiawatha,  10,  267,  268,  270 

History,  263 

first  grade,  267;  second 
grade,  270;  third  grade, 
274 ;  fourth  grade,  281 ; 
fifth  grade,  287 ;  sixth 
grade,  296  ;  seventh  grade, 
306;  eighth  grade,  313 
local,  280,  283.  (See  also 
Stockton.) 

Horatius,  13-15,  270 

Insect  study,  cage,  197 

life,  198 
Insurance,   166 
Interest,  127,  160,  167 


INDEX. 


353 


Language,  48 
oral,  49 
written,  S3 

first  grade,  59 ;  second  grade, 
61;  third  grade,  66;  fourth 
grade,  70;  fifth  grade,  78; 
sixth    grade,     83 ;    seventh 
grade,  88  ;  eighth  grade,  95 
Laws,  319,  324,  328 
Letter  writing,  81,  86,  90 

business   letters,    130,    159 
Library,  282,  307,  314 
Lime   water,   preparation    of,    221 
Liquids,  pressure   of,   209 
Literature,  3 

first  grade,  9;  second  grade, 
11;  third  grade,  16;  fourth 
grade,  19;  fifth  grade,  23; 
.sixth  grade,  31 ;  seventh 
grade,  41  ;  eighth  grade,  46 
Longfellow,  11,  12,  23,  24,  26, 
268 

Maps,  25,  46,  236,  238,  240,  242 
Map  drawing,  243,  254,  259,  260 
Magnetism,  203 
Measurement,   127,   128,   135   138, 

143,    145,    146,    148,    160, 

161,  168 

Metals,  common,  216 
Metaphors,  25,  35 
Mexico,  253 
Midas,  17 
Middle  Ages,  297 
Money,  155 
Multiplication,  129,  136,  138,  140, 

145,  149,   162 
Music,  340 
Myths,  265 

Narcotics,   229 
Nature  study,   173 
Nitrogen,    221 
North  America,  251 
Notebooks,  history,  269,  303,  311 
24 


Notebooks,  literature,  20,   43,  44, 
46,  60,  87,  93,  97 

Odyssey,  20 

Outlines,   history,   275,    284,   290, 

300,  311 

literature,  25,  44 
Oxygen,  making  of,   219 

Paragraph,  19,  74,  82,  86,  91,  276, 

277 

Paraphrasing,  26,  89 
Partition,  136,  138,  145 
Percentage,    127,    156,    159,    162, 

163 

Personification  25,  35 
Philippines,  253 
Phonics,  100,  102,  110 

first  grade,  103 ;  second 
grade,  106,  107;  third 
grade,  111,  112;  fourth 
grade,  113,  114;  fifth 
grade,  116 

Phonograms,  104,  105 
Physical  culture,  338 
Plant  study,   173 
flowers,   181 

food  stored  by  plants,    184 
seeds    and    seed    distributing, 

175 

seed   germination,    179 
tree,  its  life,  178 
movement  of  plants,  185 
parasitic    plants,    187 
propagation  of  plants,  187 
plants  useful  to  man,  185 
plants  as  soil  makers,  188 
plants  in  land  building,   189 
Poems    teaching    of,    17,    23,    26, 

27,  28,   31,  33-36 
Porto  Rico,  253 

Pronouns,      second      grade,      62 ; 
third,  grade,  67 ;  fourth  grade, 
76;    fifth   grade,    80;    sixth 
grade,  85,  86 


354 


INDEX. 


Pronouns,  relative,  68,  76,  88 
Punctuation,    19,    40,    58,    60,    63, 

70,  78,  89,  96 

Pupils'    illustrative    papers,    arith- 
metic:   third    grade,    143 

geography :  fourth  grade, 
246;  sixth  grade,  254 

history:  second  grade,  273; 
third  grade,  280 ;  fourth 
grade,  284,  285;  fifth 
grade,  294,  295 

language  and  composition : 
first  grade,  60,  61 ;  second 
grade,  65,  66 ;  third  grade, 
69,  70;  fourth  grade,  76, 
77;  fifth  grade,  82,  83; 
sixth  grade,  87,  88 ;  seventh 
grade,  93,  94 ;  eighth  grade, 
97,  98 

literature  :  second  grade,  1 5  ; 
third  grade,  17,  18;  fifth 
grade,  29,  31 ;  sixth  grade, 
37 

word  study:  second  grade, 
111;  fourth  grade,  115, 
116;  sixth  grade,  119; 
seventh  grade,  119;  eighth 
grade,  122,  123 

Reading,  3,  28,  32,  33,  41 
Reproduction,    history,    269,    275, 

291,   309 

language  and  composition, 
49,  50,  53 

first  grade,  60;  second 
grade,  61,  64 ;  third 
grade,  66;  fourth 
grade,  70,  73;  fifth 
grade,  81 ;  eighth 
grade,  96 

literature:     first     grade,    10; 
second  grade,  12,  14;  third 
grade,     1 7 ;     fourth    grade, 
19;  fifth  grade,  26,  28 
Rivers,  237,  238,  243 


Rome,  299,  300,  304 

Scott,  46 
Seeds,  175 

distribution  of,   175 
increase  of,   177 

Sentence,  structure  of,  19,  30,  66, 
68,  69,  71,  72,  82,  85,  86, 
87,  91,  97,  98 
Silkworms,    199 
Similes,  25,  31,  35 
Sky,  lessons,  on,  227 
Soil,  240 

made  by  animals,   200 
made  by  plants,  188 
Solution,  215 

South  America,  249,  250,  255,  259 
Spelling,   101,   110 

first  grade,  105  ;  second  grade, 
107;      third     grade,      113; 
fourth     grade,      114;    fifth 
grade,   116;  sixth,  seventh, 
and  eighth  grades,  118 
Square  root,   168 
State,  the,  245,  251,  328,  330 
Stockton,  in  arithmetic,  131,  132, 

133 
in  geography,   236,   240,  243, 

250,  254 
in    history,     280.     (See    also 

local    history.) 
Story,  presentation  of,   5 

first  grade,  9;  second  grade, 
13;  third  grade,  16;  fourth 
grade,  19,  21 ;  seventh 
grade,  41 

in  history,  268,  269,  274,275 
dramatic  element,   7,   9,   10 
Subtraction,    136,    137,    138,    139, 

145,   162 
Switzerland,  235,  250,  259 

Teachers'  method  sheets,  arith- 
metic: fourth  grade,  146; 
fifth  grade,  151;  sixth 


INDEX. 


355 


grade,   157;   seventh  grade, 
162;  eighth  grade,  165 

geography :  fourth  grade, 
242;  seventh  grade,  258 

history:  second  grade,  272; 
third  grade,  278;  fifth 
grade,  293 ;  sixth  grade, 
303;  eighth  grade,  315 

language  and  composition : 
first  grade,  58;  sixth 
grade,  84 ;  seventh  grade, 
89 ;  eighth  grade,  96 

literature :  first  grade,  9 ; 
second  grade,  1 2 ;  fourth 
grade,  21;  fifth  grade,  26; 
sixth  grade,  33 ;  seventh 
grade,  42 

word    study:     second    grade, 

107 

Technical   drills   in   language,    51, 
59,  62,  66,  70,  79,  80,  84, 
86,  88,  93,  97 
Tobacco,  229 


United  States,  in  geography,  248, 

251,   252,  253,   260 
in  history,  42,  297 

Valleys,  238 

Verbs,  drills  in  use  of,  40,  51,  52 
first  grade,  59;  second  grade, 

62,  65,  66 ;  third  grade,  67 ; 

fourth  grade,   71,  76;   fifth 

grade,  79 

Water,  currents  of,  206,  208,  257 

pressure   of,   210 
Whittier,  31,  32,  35,  36 
Word  study,  100 

first  grade,  103;  second 
grade,  106;  third  grade, 
111;  fourth  grade,  113; 
fifth  grade,  116;  sixth, 
seventh,  and  eighth  grades, 
118 
in  literature,  25 


1  r  V 
or  rnr         X 

UNIVERSITY  j 
&«• 


Methods  in  Elementary  Education 

A  SERIES  OP  EDUCATIONAL  BOOKS  IN  TWO  GROUPS  COVERING 

THE  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES  OF  METHOD  AND  ITS  SPECIAL 

APPLICATIONS  TO  THE  COMMON  SCHOOL 

By  CHARLES  A.  McMURRY,  Ph.D. 

NORTHERN  ILLINOIS  STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL,  DE  KALB,  ILL. 


The  Elements  of  General  Method 

Based  on  the  ideas  of  Herbart.  New  edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  Cloth.  12010.  331 
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Source  Book  of  the  History  of 
Education 

FOR  THE  GREEK  AND  ROMAN  PERIOD 

By  PAUL  MONROE,  PfaJX 

Adjunct  Professor  of  the  History  of  Education 
Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

Cloth  12 mo  $2.25  net 

"  I  have  decided  to  recommend  it  to  my  class  in  the  History  of  Educa 
tion  as  the  basis  of  their  work  for  this  fall  term.  I  regard  the  material  a; 
very  carefully  and  judiciously  selected — by  far  the  best  book  of  extracts  wit! 
which  I  am  acquainted." 

— DR.  WM.  J.  TAYLOR, 

Lecturer  on  the  History  of  Education, 

Yale  University. 


A  Modern  School 

By  PAUL  H.  HANUS 

Professor  of  the  History  and  Art  of  Teaching,  Harvard  University 
Author  of  "  Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values,"  etc. 

$1.25  net 

The  chapters  of  which  this  volume  consists,  except  the  last,  deal  will 
various  phases  of  one  central  theme  ;  the  scope  and  aims  of  a  modern  school, 
and  the  conditions  essential  to  its  highest  efficiency.  The  last  chapter  offer! 
some  testimony  on  the  working  of  the  elective  system, — a  contemporary  ques 
tion  of  great  importance  to  both  schools  and  colleges, — but  the  testimon] 
offered  pertains  only  to  the  college.  The  first  chapter  deals  specifically  will 
the  secondary  school ;  and  in  it  the  author  has  endeavored  to  extend  anc 
strengthen  certain  conceptions  set  forth  in  his  earlier  book.  The  next  sever 
chapters  contain  a  fuller  treatment  of  certain  topics  than  was  appropriate 
or  expedient  in  the  first  chapter,  and  discuss  the  internal  and  external  condi 
tions  essential  to  a  high  degree  of  success  in  the  work  of  any  school. 


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A  History  of  Education  in  the 
United  States 

By  EDWIN  GRANT  DEXTER,  Ph.D. 

Professor  of  Education  in  the  University  of  Illinois 

$2.00  net. 

This  new  work  has  been  prepared  in  the  belief  that  the  greatest  need  of 
the  student  of  our  educational  history  is  a  considerable  mass  of  definite  fact 
upon  which  to  base  his  own  generalizations,  or  with  which  to  interpret  those 
of  others,  rather  than  extended  philosophical  discussions  of  historical  trend. 
Current  educational  literature  is  rich  in  the  latter,  though  comparatively  barren 
of  the  former.  The  present  book  deals,  therefore,  with  ihefact  rather  than 
with  the  philosophy  of  education  in  the  United  States.  It  contains  an  excep- 
tionally valuable  equipment  of  references  and  bibliographies. 


The  Philosophy  of  Education 

By  HERMAN  HARRELL  HORNE,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Philosophy  and  Pedagogy  in  Dartmouth  College 

$1.50  net 

This  Yolume  is  a  connected  series  of  discussions  on  the  foundations  of 
education  in  the  related  sciences  of  biology,  physiology,  sociology,  psychology, 
and  philosophy.  It  is  not  another  of  the  many  current  manuals  of  practice, 
but  a  thoroughgoing  interpretation  of  the  nature,  place,  and  meaning  of  educa- 
tion in  our  world.  The  newest  points  of  view  in  the  realms  of  natural  and 
mental  science  are  applied  to  the  understanding  of  educational  problems.  The 
field  of  education  is  carefully  divided,  and  the  total  discussion  is  devoted  to 
the  philosophy  of  education,  in  distinction  from  its  history,  science,  and 
art.  The  conceptions  of  evolution,  society,  and  genetic  psychology  shed  their 
light  upon  educational  phenomena,  yielding  in  the  end  a  comprehensive  defi- 
nition of  what  education  is.  The  various  conflicting  modern  educational 
opinions  are  organized  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  are  made  to  appear  as 
partial  truths  of  a  common  system.  The  whole  is  suffused  with  the  spirit  of  an 
idealistic  philosophy  in  which  education  is  finally  made  to  yield  its  ultimate 
meaning  as  to  the  origin,  nature,  and  destiny  of  man. 


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